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DISEASES OF POULTRY 



RAYMOND PEARL- FRANK M. SURFACE 
MAYNIE R.CURTIS 




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COPYRIGHT DEPOSm 



DISEASES OF POULTRY 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

»IEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO • DALLAS 
ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN & CO., Limited 

LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE MACMHvLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. 

TORONTO 



DISEASES OF POULTRY 



THEIR ETIOLOGY, DIAGNOSIS, TREAT- 
MENT, AND PREVENTION 



BY 



EAYMOND PEAEL, FRANK M. SURFACE 

AND 

MAYNIE R. CURTIS 

Biologists in the Maine Agricultural Experiment 
Station 



Ncto gork 

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

1915 

AU rights reserved 



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COPTBIGHT, 1918, 

By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



Set up and electrotyped. Published December, 1915. 



NoriDOot) ^rcss 

J. 8. Gushing Co. — Berwick <fc Smith Co. 

Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 



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Cru 



QEC 16 1915 

©C1.A418049 



PREFACE 

It is probably safe to say that considerably more than 
fifty per cent of the correspondence of those engaged in 
poultry work in the agricultural colleges and experiment 
stations in this country relates to poultry diseases. The 
poultryman or farmer sees that some, or perhaps all, of 
his birds are ill, and he straightway writes to the nearest 
college or station to know what the disease is, and what 
to do for it. The Maine Station has for many years been 
the recipient of a great number of such inquiries. It is 
an unfortunate, but in the nature of the case an unavoid- 
able fact, that in many instances it is quite impossible to 
make any really satisfactory reply to these inquiries. In 
the vast majority of cases the person who writes the letter 
is quite untrained in pathology and either describes no 
symptoms at all or only those very general ones which 
are common to nearly all the ills of poultry. To one 
who has not handled this class of correspondence it would 
seem almost incredible that there should be so many let- 
ters of the following type : " I have lost about a third of 
my chickens in the last few days. They seem a little 
dumpish for a while and then die. What is the trouble 
and what shall I do for it ? " To diagnose and prescribe 
on such a basis of information is impossible. Yet the 
hard fact remains that the correspondent's chickens were 
ill and did die, and he needs help to get out of the trouble. 

Only recently has any attempt been made by our agri- 
cultural colleges to prepare its graduates in poultry hus- 
bandry and general agriculture to meet intelligently these 



vi Preface 

problems of poultry disease. Indeed even the veterinary 
schools have given but scant attention to avian pathology. 
Yet there exists, scattered in the literature, a large amount 
of definite information regarding poultry diseases. It 
was the purpose of the first edition of the circular on 
which the present book is based to give a clear and rea- 
sonably complete compilation and digest of the information 
then existing in the literature regarding the commoner 
diseases of poultry, their diagnosis, etiology, treatment, 
and prognosis. 

The material was put together in the form which seemed 
most likely to meet the needs of the practical poultryman. 
It was soon found that in addition to this use, the book 
was coming to be rather widely employed as a text-book 
for courses in the diseases of poultry in agricultural col- 
leges and high schools. In preparing the present edition 
the authors have kept more definitely in mind this second 
way in which the book may prove useful, and have added 
on that account some material not likely to be of imme- 
diate interest to the poultryman. 

While none of the authors is engaged in researches in 
pathology, it is a fact that they have all had extensive 
experience in the appearance at autopsy of chickens dead 
from some one or more of a very wide variety of causes. 
There are but very few diseases mentioned in the book 
with which the authors have not had first-hand experience. 
It is hoped that the knowledge gained in this way will 
prove to have been of some critical value in the compila- 
■tion of this book. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



Preface 

List of Illustrations 



CHAPTER 

I. General Considerations regarding the Treat- 
ment OF Poultry Diseases 

11. Poultry Hygiene 

III. The Diagnosis of the Diseases of Poultry 

IV. Poultry Materia Medica 
V. Diseases of the Alimp:ntary Tract 

VI. Poisons 

VII. Diseases of the Liver 

VIII. Fowl Cholera, Fowl Typhoid and Fowl Plague 

IX. Tuberculosis 

X. Internal Parasites 

XL Diseases of the Respiratory System . 

XII. Diseases of the Circulatory System . 

XIII. Diseases of the Nervous System . 

XIV. Diseases of the Kidneys, Rheumatism 

Limberneck . 

XV. External Parasites . 

XVI. Diseases of the Skin 

XVII. Diseases of the Reproductive Organs 

XVIII. White Diarrhea 

XIX. Other Diseases of Chickens 

XX. Tumors .... 

XXI. Poultry Surgery 



Glossary of Techxical Terms 
Index 



1 

8 

36 

52 

57 

81 

87 

102 

115 

133 

147 

182 

194 

199 
203 
233 
245 
283 
301 
312 
324 

329 
335 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



FIGURE PAGE 

1. Showing differences in constitutional vigor. (After H. R. Lewis) 5 

2. Silver-laced Wyandottes showing great constitutional vigor. 

(After D. S. Thompson) 7 

3. Curtain-front poultry house, exterior. (Original) . . .11 

4. Curtain-front poultry house, interior. (Original) ... 13 

5. Crematory. (Original) 33 

6. Skeleton of cock. (After Diirigen) 42 

7. Dissection of hen. (Original) 44 

8. Life history of a coccidium. (After Cole and Hadley) . . 73 

9. Showing condition of liver in blackhead. (After Moore) . 95 

10. Heart blood of pigeon infected with fowl cholera. (After Kolle 

and Hetsch) 103 

11. Section of lung showing tubercle bacilli. ( After Himmelberger) 117 

12. Breastbone of fowl showing emaciation in tuberculosis. (After 

Ward) 121 

13. Liver of fowl affected with tuberculosis. (After Ward) . . 122 

14. Spleen from tuberculous fowl. (After Koch and Rabinowitsch) 122 

15. Tuberculosis of intestines and mesenteries. (After Van Es and 

Schalk) 123 

16. Intestines and mesenteries of a fowl infected with tuberculosis. 

(After Ward) 124 

17. Syringe used in tuberculin test. (After Van Es and Schalk) . 126 

18. Head of chicken showing positive tuberculin reaction. (After 

Van Es and Schalk) 127 

19. Drepanidot(Bnia infundibuliformis, a tape worm of the fowl. 

(After Stiles) 135 

20. Intestine of fowl showing tape worms in nodular tseniasis. 

(After Pearson and Warren) 138 

21. Sketch showing method of introducing turpentine directly into 

crop. (After Gage and Opperman) ..... 140 

22. Worms protruding from intestine of fowl. (After Bradshaw) . 142 

23. Heterakis perspicillum. (After Salmon) 144 



X List of Illustrations 

FIGURE PAGE 

24. Trematode worm or fluke. (After Thompson) . . . 145 

25. Lungs of a domestic fowl. (Original) 147 

26. Diagrammatic drawing of the left lung of a fowl. (Original) . 148 

27. Ventral surface of right lung of a fowl. (From Gadow, after 

Stieda) 149 

28. Cross section of small air tubes of the lung of a goose. (From 

Oppel, after Schultz) 150 

29. Fowl's head showing infra-orbital tumor caused by roup. (After 

Roebuck) 157 

30. Showing appearance of a hen a day before death from roup. 

(After Harrison and Streit) 158 

31. Diphtheritic roup or canker. (After Roebuck) . . . 166 

32. Aspergillus fumigatus. (After Mohler and Buckley) . . 176 

33. Cytodites mudus, the air-sac mite. (After Theobald) . . 181 

34. Bird suffering from spirochcetosis. (After Kolle and Hetsch) . 191 

35. Fowl spirochetosis. (From Kolle and Hetsch, after Barri) . 192 

36. The common hen louse, Menopon pallidum. (From Banks) . 206 

37. Lipexirus variabilis, a louse that infests poultry. (From Banks, 

after Denny) 207 

38. Goniodes dissimilis, a louse that infests poultry. (From Banks, 

after Denny) 207 

39. Feathers showing eggs or "nits" of the common hen louse. 

(Original) 208 

40. The common "red mite" of poultry, Dermanyssus gallince. 

(After Osborn) 214 

41. Normal leg and leg of hen affected with scaly leg. (After 

M^gnin) 217 

42. Leg of hen severely affected with scaly leg. (After Haiduk) . 219 

43. Adult female of the mite Knemidocoptes (Dermatoryctes) mu- 

tans. (After Haiduk) 220 

44. Six-legged larva of Knemidocoptes (Dermatoryctes) mutatis. 

(After Haiduk) 221 

45. Section of the skin of the leg of a fowl affected with scaly leg. 

(After Haiduk) 223 

46. Egg containing female of Sarcoptes Icevis var. gallince. (After 

Theobald) 225 

47. Symplectoptes cysticola, connective tissue mite. (After Theo- 

bald) 227 

48. "Harvest bug," Tetranychus (Leptus) autumnalis. Larval 

form. (After Murray) 227 



List of Illustrations xi 

FIGITKE PA(iE 

49. The poultry tick, ^rgras ^ersicws, adult. (After Laurie) . . 228 

50. The poultry tick larva showing three pairs of legs. (After 

Laurie) 229 

51 . The chicken flea, Pulex gallinoe or avium. (After Kaupp) . 231 

52. Head and neck of fowl affected with generalized favus. (After 

Pearson) 233 

53. The fungus Achorion schonleinii, which causes favus in poultry 235 

54. Sore-head on comb, eyelids, and skin. (After Hadley and 

Beach) 239 

55. Reproductive organs of a hen. (After Duval) .... 247 

56. Showing a case of incomplete hermaphroditism. (Original) . 252 

67. Oviduct removed from a laying hen and cut open along the point 

of attachment of the ventral ligament. (Original) . . 260 

68. Triple-yolked egg. (Original) 275 

59. Showing shapes of abnormal eggs sometimes found. (From 

von Durski, after Landois) 279 

60. The normal ovary of a laying hen. (After Rettger, Kirkpat- 

rick, and Jones) ......... 289 

61. Ovary from a hen infected with B. puUorum. (After Rettger, 

Kirkpatrick, and Jones) 290 

62. Showing how bacillary white diarrhea perpetuates itself in the 

breeding stock. (After Rettger and Stoneburn) . . 291 

63. Ten-day-old White Leghoi-n chicks showing symptoms of bacil- 

lary white diarrhea. (After Rettger and Stoneburn) . . 292 

64. Normal ten-day White Leghorn chicks, (After Rettger and 

Stoneburn) 293 

65. Trachea of a pheasant showing gape worms (St/iigamus trache- 

alis). (After M^gnin) 305 

66. A pair of Syngamus trachealis attached. (After M^gnin) . 305 

67. A -pair oi Syngamus trachealis. (After Mdgnin) . . . 307 

68. Sarcoma chicken tumor No. 1. Second generation. (After 

Rous) 316 

69. Chicken tumor XVIII in the gizzard of the original fowl. 

(After Rous and Lange) 317 

70. Osteo-chrondrosarcoma produced by intramuscular injection of 

4 cc. of the Berkfeld filtrate of an extract of chicken tumor 

No. VII. (After Rous and Murphy) 318 

71. The growth shown in figure 70 after it had been sawed open. 

(After Rous and Murphy) 319 

72. Cysto-adenoma on the sero.sa of the intestine. (After Pickens) 322 



DISEASES OF POULTRY 



CHAPTER I 

General Considerations Regarding the Treatment of 
Poultry Diseases 

There is general agreement on the part of authorities on 
poultry pathology and practical poultrymen of long expe- 
rience that, in general, "doctoring" poultry is not advisable. 
The reasons for this attitude are primarily the following : 

1. The unit of production with poultry (i.e., the individual 
bird) is of relatively small value, and if a man's time is worth 
anything, it is too valuable to spend treating sick chickens 
individually unless they are show specimens of great indi- 
vidual value. 

2. The "cured" chicken is a menace to the owner, because 
its identity is likely to be overlooked or forgotten, with the 
result that it goes into the breeding pen and perpetuates 
through its offspring the constitutional weakness which was 
one fundamental factor in bringing about the result that it, 
rather than some of its fellows, was ill. 

This point of view has been well stated by Wright ^ in the 
following words : 

"In a large proportion of cases of disease, the birds ought to 
die or be killed. Even where there is no constitutional taint, 
the fact that they have succumbed to circumstances which 

^ Wright, L., " The New Book of Poultry." London (Cassell 
& Company), 1905. 

B 1 



2 Diseases of Poultry 

have not affected others, marks them out as the weakest, 
which unaided Nature would assuredly weed out, and which 
if we preserve and breed from, perpetuate some amount of 
that weakness in the progeny. Rheumatism, for instance, 
can be cured ; of that there is no doubt. But the vast 
majority who have had such success, agree that the effects 
are either never recovered from, as regards strength and vigor, 
or else that the original weakness continues; and the same 
may be said of some severe contagious diseases, such as 
diphtheritic roup, which may affect the strongest. On 
the other hand, many diseases also apparently contagious, 
and so attacking healthy birds under certain predisposing 
conditions of exposure or other coincident strain upon the 
system, do not appear to leave serious results behind them, 
and are tolerably definite in symptoms and character. It is 
these which may be most successfully treated, and in which 
treatment is most worth while where fowls of value are con- 
cerned. But it is significant that nearly all breeders who 
rear really large numbers of poultry, gradually come to the 
conclusion that, except in special cases, with valuable birds, 
the most economical treatment of serious disease occurring 
in a yard is — execution. Concerning this matter each 
must judge for himself." 

In the case of the utility poultryman, keeping poultry solely 
for the eggs and meat they produce, practically the only 
diseased conditions which it will pay him to treat at all are 
those in which the treatment can be applied to the flock as a 
whole, without the necessity of handling individual birds. 
Thus, for example, in cases where the flock "goes off its 
feed," or has simple indigestion or a mild cold, the birds 
can be treated successfully as a flock. On the other hand, 
in the case of the fancier, who has individual birds of con- 
siderable value, there will be a much wider range of diseases 
which he will feel that it is profitable for him to treat. There 



General Considerations 3 

are, of course, certain diseased conditions which demand 
individual treatment, but in which the treatment is so simple 
and the outcome is almost certain to be so good, as to justify 
its employment even in the case of birds of ordinary value. 
An example of such a condition is found in a crop-bound bird. 

Prevention Rather Than Cure the Ideal 

The aim of every poultry keeper, whether his interest is in 
the fancy or the utility end of the business, should be to 
breed and manage his birds so as to prevent entirely, or 
reduce to a minimum, the occurrence of disease. In other 
words, the attitude should be that the end to be sought is 
to prevent the occurrence of disease, rather than to rely 
on a rather dubious ability to cure it after it is there. Such 
a standpoint is sound from every point of view ; it is in line 
with the whole development of modern medicine. The 
poultry doctor should regard his function as the same as that 
of the Chinese physician, who is primarily employed to keep 
the patient from becoming ill, only secondarily to cure him. 

Now there are fundamentally two factors involved in the 
continued maintenance of good health in poultry (or, for the 
matter of that, in any other animal) . These are : 

1. A sound and vigorous constitution, which if present, is 
something innate and "bred in the bone," and which, if 
absent, must be bred into the stock. 

2. A system of ■poultry management {including feeding, 
housing, etc.) which is thoroughly and absolutely hygienic. 

We shall consider each of these factors separately in some 
detail. 

Breeding for Health, Vigor and Sound Constitution 

To have a high degree of constitutional vigor in the 
foundation stock is one of the most certain assurances that 



4 Diseases of Poultry 

the poultryman will not be troubled with disease. This is 
of primary importance. In order to breed constitutional 
vigor into the flock, the poultryman must train himself to 
recognize at a glance the condition of his birds. Are they 
in good condition or not ? Regarding the aspect of fowls in 
health and disease Salmon ^ has the following to say : 

"We say that a bird is in good health when it appears 
lively, has a clear eye, a bright red comb, is quick and active 
in its movements, has a good appetite and when the various 
organs perform their functions in the manner in which they 
are observed to act in all birds that are vigorous and thriving. 
On the other hand, we say a bird is diseased when some 
function or functions of its body are not performed as 
they are in the great majority of individuals, or when some 
organ presents an unusual form or appearance. Disease 
has, therefore, been defined as a life the manifestations of 
which deviate more or less from the normal. Practically, 
we say a bird is diseased when we observe that one or more 
of its functions are not carried on in a normal manner, or 
when we find unusual growths, injuries, or parasites affect- 
ing any of its organs." 

Having acquired the ability to see the individual birds 
as individuals, the next step is to learn to distinguish a good 
bird from a poor one. Here it is ever to be kept in mind 
that the primary and most essential characteristic of a good 
bird must always be a sound constitution and plenty of 
vitality and vigor. Without these qualities it is impossible 
to have first class stock. Constitutional vigor and vitality 
may be put as a fundamental requisite in the successfid 
practical breeding of poultry. In all kinds of breeding 
operations whether for utility purposes, or for the fancier's 
show pen, or for the purpose of experimentation in the field 

1 Salmon, D. E., "The Diseases of Poultry." Washington 
(no date). 



General ConsiflernfioNs 



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6 Diseases of Poultry 

of heredity, the first selection of birds for the breeding pen 
should be made on the basis of their general constitutional 
vigor. No bird which shows signs of weakness in this funda- 
mental regard should ever be used as a breeder under any 
circumstances. If such a bird is used the breeder will 
eventuall}^ have to pay the penalty. 

The external, visible evidences of a sound constitution 
and a possession of abundant vitality and vigor are numerous. 
In the first place the bird of sound constitution will be in 
perfect health. Perhaps its most striking characteristic will 
be an independence of disposition and demeanor. By this 
is not necessarily meant aggressiveness. The bird, whether 
male or female, which is forever picking quarrels with its 
fellows is by no means always the bird of greatest vigor. 
Strange as it may seem a bird may indeed be very far from 
a mollycoddle and yet have a peaceable disposition. It 
may be taken as an unfailing characteristic of birds of high 
constitutional vigor, however, that they are able to take 
care of themselves and may not be imposed upon, or bullied 
by their fellows, with impunity. While they may not pick 
a quarrel, they are abundantly able to make a forceful 
presentation of the merits of their end of any debate which 
another bird may choose to enter upon with them. In 
other words they have, as has been said, an independence 
of disposition ; an ability, reaching to the limits of gallina- 
ceous capacity, to meet all situations which may arise in 
the day's work of a fowl, whether food getting, fighting, 
rearing young, or what not. 

The bird of high constitutional vigor will have a thrifty 
appearance, with a bright eye, and clean, well-kept plumage. 
The head will be broad and relatively short, giving in its 
appearance plain indication of strength. It will show 
nothing of the long-drawn-out, sickly, crow-like appearance 
of the head which is all too common amongst the inhabitants 



General Considerations 7 

of the average poultry yard. The beak will be relatively 
short and strong, thus correlating with the general confor- 
mation of the head. Comb and wattles will be bright in 
color and present a full-blooded, healthy, vigorous appear- 
ance. 

The body of the bird of high constitutional vigor will be 
broad and deep and well meated, with a frame well knit to- 
gether, strong in the bone but not coarse. In fowls of strong 




Fig. 2. — Six Silver-laced Wyandottes, which have great constitutional 
vigor and vitality. These birds averaged to lay 204 eggs each in a year. 
Only birds in perfect health and high constitutional vigor can make 
such records. (After D. S. Thompson.) 



constitution and great vigor all the secondary sexual differ- 
ences will usually be well marked. In other words the males 
will be masculine to a degree in appearance and behavior, 
and the females correspondingly feminine. It must be 
noted, however, that this last is a general rule to which there 
are occasional exceptions. 



CHAPTER II 

Poultry Hygiene 

Second in importance only to high constitutional vigor 
and health is attention to the basic rules of hygiene and sani- 
tation in the management of poultry. In view of the prev- 
alent misunderstanding or lack of understanding of these 
principles it seems wise to devote one chapter to an outline 
of the more important points which need to be looked after 
in hygienic poultry keeping. Attention to the rules and 
principles here set forth will go a great way towards pre- 
venting the occurrence of disease. This does not mean that 
if these rules are not followed disease and destruction will 
forthwith result. Every one knows of plenty of instances 
of more or less successful poultry keeping under the most 
insanitary and unhygienic of conditions. So, similarly, 
human beings are able, when forced to do so, to live under 
unhygienic conditions. But every civilized country in the 
world believes that the most economical insurance against 
the steady loss of national wealth which the prevalence of 
disease involves is the enforcement of sanitary regulations 
throughout its domain. Again, many men who do not 
carry fire insurance on their buildings go through life with- 
out having any of them burn down. But this is no argument 
against the fact that it is a sound economic policy to carry 
fire insurance. In poultry keeping many may be successful 
for a time in managing their birds in defiance of the laws of 
sanitation and hygiene ; a very few may be successful in 

8 



Poultry Hygiene 9 

this practice for a long time, but in the long run the vast 
majority will find that thorough, careful and intelligent 
attention to these laws will be one of the best guaranties 
of permanent success that they can find. 

Poultry hygiene and sanitation will be considered here un- 
der seven main heads, as follows : I. Housing. II. Feeding. 
Ill, The Land. IV. Exercise. V. External Parasites. 
VI. Disposal of the Dead. VII. Isolation of Sickness. 
What is said under all of these heads is intended to apply 
(unless a specific statement to the contrary is made) both 
to adult birds and to chicks. No discussion of the hygiene 
of incubation, or of the relative merits of artificially and 
naturally hatched chickens will be undertaken here, because 
these are special subjects falling outside the field of general 
poultry hygiene. 

/. Poultry House Hygiene and Sanitation 

A. General Principles of Poultry Hoiising. — In the 
management of adult fowls there are in the main two 
things to be considered, housing and feeding. A vast 
multitude of methods of doing these two things to poultry 
have been tried during the history of the industry. 

There have been published plans for poultry houses of all 
conceivable shapes and sizes. Long houses, short houses, 
tall houses, low houses ; square, hexagonal, octagonal and 
round houses ; heated houses and cold houses ; all these 
and many more have had their advocates, and detailed plans 
for their construction can be found. It would appear that 
* there must be realized here the primary condition of the 
experimental method, namely the "trying of all things." 
It only remains to discover that which is "good" in order 
that we may "hold fast" to it. 

This discovery had indeed been made in regard to a few 



10 Diseases of Poultry 

of the basic things in the housing of poultry. It would be 
strange if something had not come out of all the indignities 
to which innocent and inoffensive generations of fowls have 
been submitted in the way of dwelling accommodations. It 
is now clearly recognized, and generally admitted by all 
competent poultrymen, that certain things are absolutely 
essential in any poultry house which is to give good results. 
These are (1) fresh air, (2) freedom from dampness, (3) 
freedom from draughts, (4) sunlight and (5) cleanliness. 

If these five things are realized in a poultry house the birds 
will thrive and be productive in it, provided they are well 
and regularly fed and watered. It makes no difference 
particularly to the well-being of the birds how these neces- 
sary specifications of their dwelling are attained. To the 
poultryman, however, it is important that they be attained 
at the smallest expense, having regard to (a) initial cost, 
(6) repairs and up-keep and (c) labor necessary to operate 
the house to get the specified results. The housing prob- 
lem is to the poultryman, then, both a biological and an 
economic one. The biological solution is definite. The 
requisites named above must be met, and there is one addi- 
tional factor to be taken into account ; namely, size of house. 
Experiments made at various times and places indicate 
clearly that in northern climates, where birds must be shut 
up in the house during a part of the year in order to give 
best results, there should be allowed in the house at least 
three square feet of floor space per bird, and preferably a 
little more. Four square feet floor space per bird is a liberal 
allowance. 

A factor which it was formerly thought necessary to con- 
trol in the housing of poultry was the temperature. It was 
long held that if fowls were to lay well in the winter it was 
necessary that they should be in a heated house. Later 
experience has shown conclusively that this was an utterly 



Poultry Hygiene 



11 




12 Diseases of Poultry 

fallacious idea. As a matter of fact, even in the coldest cli- 
mates, fowls will lay better during the winter months in a 
properly constructed house wide open to the outside air in 
the day time, so that they are living practically out of doors, 
than in any heated house which has yet been devised. If a 
laying house is dry the temperature factor may be neglected. 
If a house has a tendency to dampness, it will give poor 
results regardless of temperature. 

From the economic standpoint there are two systems of 
housing poultry to be considered. One of these is the 
system of long, continuous houses for the laying birds. The 
other is the so-called colony house system, in which the 
birds are housed in small separate houses which may either 
be set a considerable distance apart over a relatively wide 
area, or may be placed relatively near one another. Each 
system has its strenuous advocates. Experience covering a 
fairly long period of years now has demonstrated that both 
systems have good points. As to which shall be adopted 
in a particular instance depends upon a variety of considera- 
tions, each in some degree peculiar to the particular case in 
hand. 

In the extreme northern part of the country where the 
climate is very cold in the winter and there is an abundance 
of snow there can be no question that the long house is much 
to be preferred to a colony system. There are two reasons 
for this. In the first place experience indicates that the 
birds are somewhat more productive and keep in better 
condition in a properly constructed and managed long house 
than in colony houses. Furthermore the labor expense 
involved in caring for a given number of fowls is much lessj 
under such climatic conditions, than with the colony house 
system, where the birds are scattered over a wider area and 
more paths must be broken out in the snow. 

The great advantage of the colony house system is its 



Poultry Hygiene 



13 




14 Diseases of Poultry 

flexibility. Furthermore it gets around the troubles in- 
volved in the contamination of the ground by the long- 
continued keeping of poultry on the same small area. In 
general, local conditions and circiunstances must decide in 
each individual case which system of housing shall be 
adopted. 

B. Cleanliness. — The thing of paramount importance 
in the hygienic housing of poultry is cleanliness. By this 
is meant not merely plain, ordinary cleaning up, in the house- 
wife sense, but also bacteriological cleaning up ; that is, 
disinfection. All buildings or structures of whatever kind 
in which poultry are housed during any part of their lives 
should be subjected to a most thorough and searching clean- 
ing and disinfection at least once every year. This cleaning 
up should naturally come for each different structure {i.e., 
laying, colony or brooder house, individual brooder, incuba- 
tor, etc.) at a time which just precedes the putting of new 
stock into this structure. 

How to clean a poultry house. — Not every poultryman of 
experience even, knows how really to clean a poultry house. 
The first thing to do is to remove all the litter and loose dirt 
which can be shoveled out. Then give the house — floor, 
walls and ceiling — a thorough sweeping and shovel out 
the accumulated debris. Then play a garden hose, with 
the maximum water pressure which can be obtained, upon 
floor, roosting boards, walls and ceiling, until all the dirt 
which washes down easily is disposed of. Then take a 
heavy hoe or roost board scraper and proceed to scrape the 
floor and roosting boards, clean of the trampled and caked 
manure and dirt. Then shovel out what has been accumu- 
lated and get the hose into action once more and wash the 
whole place down again thoroughly and follow this with 
another scraping. With a stiff bristled broom thoroughlj'^ 
scrub walls, floors, nest boxes, roost boards, etc. Then 



Poultry Hygiene 15 

after another rinsing down and cleaning out of accumulated 
dirt, let the house dry out for a day or two. Then make a 
searching inspection to see if any dirt can be discovered. If 
so, apply the appropriate treatment as outlined above. If, 
however, everything appears to be clean, the time has come 
to make it really clean by disinfection. To do this it is 
necessary to spray or thoroughly wash with a scrub brush 
wet in the solution used all parts of the house with a good 
disinfectant at least twice, allowing time between for it to 
dry. For this purpose 3 per cent cresol solution is recom- 
mended. The chief thing is to use an effective disinfectant 
and plenty of it, and apply it at least twice. A discussion 
of disinfectants immediately follows this section. To com- 
plete the cleaning of the house, after the second spraying of 
disinfectant is dry apply a liquid lice killer (made by putting 
1 part crude carbolic acid or cresol with 3 parts kerosene) 
liberally to nests and roosts and nearby walls. After all 
this is done the house will be clea7i. In houses cleaned 
annually in this way the first step is taken towards hygienic 
poultry keeping. 

The same principles which have been here brought out 
should be applied in cleaning brooders, brooder houses, and 
other things on the plant with which the birds come in con- 
tact. 

What has been said has reference primarily to the annual 
or semiannual cleaning. It should not be understood by 
this that no cleaning is to be done at any other time. On 
the contrary the rule should be to keep the poultry house 
clean at all times, never allowing filth of any kind to accumu- 
late and using plenty of disinfectant. 

Disinfection. — In the matter of disinfection there are 
several options open to the poultryman. He may make his 
own disinfectant, or he may purchase proprietary compounds 
like Zenoleum, Carbolineum or a host of other "eums" 



16 Diseases of Poultry 

which confront him at every turn in his reading of poultry 
periodicals, or he may buy a plain disinfectant like formalde- 
hyde, or carbolic acid. 

There is no more effective general disinfectant than 
formaldehyde, and it also has the advantage of being cheap. 
We have used it regularly for some years past with excellent 
results. A 5 per cent solution of commercial formalin in 
water is applied to walls, floors and roost boards by means 
of a pressure spray pump. Various hand pumps of this 
type are on the market. It will pay the poultryman to get 
one of the well made higher priced sorts. If a spray pump 
is not available the formaldehyde solution may be put on 
with a brush. In any case a liberal amount should be used. 
When applying it all doors and windows should be open 
to diminish as much as possible the irritating effect of the 
vapor on the worker. His hands should also be protected 
by the use of well oiled leather gloves. 

Some writers have advocated the formaldehyde gas method 
for disinfecting poultry houses, using the permanganate 
method of generating. This, however, is indicated only 
for rooms which can easily be closed up air tight. It costs 
too much in time and trouble to make any form of "fresh 
air" poultry house even moderately air tight. The for- 
maldehyde gas method is well adapted to disinfecting and 
fumigating feed rooms, incubator cellars, brooder houses 
and all houses which can be readily made air tight. For the 
benefit of those who wish to use the method for such purposes 
the following directions are given. This will give a very 
strong fumigation and disinfection but such is indicated 
about poultry establishments. 

Formaldehyde gas disinfection. — First make the room as 
tight as possible by stopping cracks, key-holes, etc., with 
pieces of cloth or similar substance. Open bins and doors 
of closets, etc., to allow free access of the gas. Use a metal 



Poultry Hygiene 17 

or earthen dish for a generator, of sufficient size so that the 
Hquid will not spatter or boil over on the floor, since the 
permanganate will stain. The temperature of the room 
should not be below 50° F. and more effective disinfection 
will be obtained if the temperature is 80° F. or above at the 
beginning. Sprinkle boiling water on the floor or place a 
kettle of boiling water in the room to create a moist atmos- 
phere. Spread the permanganate evenly over the bottom 
of the dish and quickly pour in the formaldehyde (40 per 
cent strength as purchased). Leave and tightly close the 
room at once and allow to remain closed for 4-6 hours or 
longer, then air thoroughly. Use 23 ounces of permanganate 
and 3 pints of formaldehyde to each 1000 cubic feet of space. 

Cresol disinfectant. — For a disinfectant of the coal-tar or 
carbolic acid type, we have found a cheap and satisfactory 
sort to be compound cresol solution. This may be used 
alone or as a second spray following formalin for spraying 
and disinfecting the houses after they are cleaned, disinfect- 
ing brooders, brooder houses, incubators, nests and every- 
thing else about the plant which can be disinfected with a 
liquid substance. It is particularly effective against mites 
and other insect pests. It has been very satisfactory in 
disinfecting incubators between hatches. Any person can 
easily make this disinfectant. The following directions for 
its manufacture are quoted from Bulletin 179 of the Maine 
Agricultural Experiment Station. 

The active base of cresol soap disinfecting solution is com- 
mercial cresol. This is a thick, sirupy fluid, varying in color 
in different lots from a nearly colorless fluid to a dark brown. 
It does not mix readily with water, and, therefore, in order 
to make satisfactory a dilute solution, it is necessary first 
to incorporate the cresol with some substance like soap 
which will mix with water and will carry the cresol over 
into the mixture. The commercial cresol, as it is obtained, 



18 Diseases of Poultry 

is a corrosive substance, being in this respect not unlike 
carbolic acid. It should, of course, be handled with great 
care and the pure cresol should not be allowed to come in 
contact with the skin. If it does so accidentally the spot 
should be immediately washed off with plenty of clean water. 
The price of commercial cresol varies with the drug market. 
It can be obtained through any druggist. In purchasing 
this article one should order simply "commercial cresol." 

Measure out 3^ quarts of raw linseed oil in a 4 or 5 
gallon stone crock; then weigh out in a dish 1 lb. 6 oz. of 
commercial lye or "Babbit's potash." Dissolve this lye in 
as little water as will completely dissolve it. Start with | 
pint of water, and if this will not dissolve all the lye, add 
mo^re water slowly. Let this stand for at least 3 hours until 
the lye is completely dissolved and the solution is cold ; 
then add the cold lye solution very slowly to the linseed oil, 
stirring constantly. Not less than 5 minutes should be 
taken for the adding of this solution of lye to the oil. After 
the lye is added continue the stirring until the mixture is 
in the condition and has the texture of a smooth homoge- 
neous liquid soap. This ought not to take more than a half 
hour. Then while the soap is in this liquid state, and 
before it has a chance to harden add, with constant stirring, 
82 quarts of commercial cresol. The cresol will blend 
perfectly with the soap solution and made a clear, dark 
brown fluid. The resulting solution will mix in any propor- 
tion with water and yield a clear solution. 

Cresol soap is an extremely powerful disinfectant. In the 
Station poultry plant for general purposes of disinfecting the 
houses, brooder houses, incubators, nests and other wood 
work, it should be used in a 3 per cent solution with water. 
Two or three tablespoons of the cresol soap to each gallon 
of water will make a satisfactory solution. This solution 
may be applied through any kind of spray pump or with a 



Poultry Hygiene 19 

brush. Being a clear, watery fluid it can be used in any 
spray pump without difficulty. For disinfecting brooders 
or incubators which there is reason to believe have been 
particularly liable to infection with the germs of white 
diarrhea or other diseases the cresol may be used in double 
the strength given above and applied with a scrub brush in 
addition to the spray. 

C. Fresh Air and Light. — Too great stress cannot be 
laid on the importance of plenty of fresh air in the poultry 
house if the birds are to keep in good condition. And it 
must be remembered in this connection that "fresh" air, 
and cold stagnant air are two very different things. Too 
many of the types of curtain front and so-called "fresh" air 
houses now in use are without any provision other than an 
obliging southerly wind, to insure the circulation or changing 
of air within the house. Even with an open front house it 
is wise to provide for a circulation of air in such way that 
direct drafts cannot strike the birds. This applies not only 
to the housing of adult birds in laying houses, but also to 
the case of young stock in colony houses on the range. 
Further a circulation of fresh air under the hover in artificial 
rearing is greatly to be desired and will have a marked effect 
on the health and vigor of the chicks. 

Not only should the poultry house be such as to furnish 
plenty of fresh air, but it should also be light. The prime 
importance of sunlight in sanitation is universally recognized 
by medical authorities. Disease germs cannot stand pro- 
longed exposure to the direct rays of the sun. Sunlight is 
Nature's great disinfectant. Its importance is no less in 
poultry than in human sanitation. The following statement 
made some years ago (1904) by a writer signing himself 
"M" in Farm Poultry (Vol. 15) brings home in a few words 
the importance of having plenty of light in the poultry 
house. 



20 Diseases of Poultry 

"Light in the poultry house has been found by a writer 
a great help in keeping the house clean and keeping the fowls 
healthy. Probably there is no greater assistance to the dis- 
eases of poultry than dark and damp houses, and dark houses 
are frequently damp. In recent years I have had both kinds 
of experience, those with the hens confined in a large, dry 
and light house, and with hens confined in a dark house in 
which a single window looking towards the setting sun fur- 
nished the only light. Being forced to use the latter build- 
ing for an entire winter I found it impossible to get it thor- 
oughly dried out after a rain had rendered the walls damp. 
By spring some of the fowls that had been confined there 
began to die of a mysterious disease and a post-mortem ex- 
amination showed it to be liver disease. Later the roup 
broke out in the same house and this dread disease continued 
with the flock for months exacting a heavy toll in laying 
hens." 

D. Avoid Dampness. — Of all unfavorable environmental 
conditions into which poultry may, by bad management, 
be brought, a damp house is probably the worst. Nothing 
will diminish the productivity of a flock so quickly and 
surely as will dampness in the house, and nothing is so 
certain and speedy an excitant to roup and kindred ills. 
The place udiere poultry are housed must be kept dry if the 

flock is to be productive and free from disease. 

E. Provide Clean and Dry Litter. — Experience has demon- 
strated that the best way in which to give fowls exercise 
during the winter months in which, in northern climates 
at least, they must be housed the greater part if not all of 
the time, is by providing a deep litter in which the birds 
scratch for their dry grain ration. For this litter the Maine 
Agricultural Experiment Station uses pine planer shavings, 
with a layer of straw on top. Whatever the litter it should 
be changed as often as it gets damp or dirty. 



Poultry Hygiene 21 

//. Hygienic Feeding 

Having housed our fowls they must be fed. Here the 
same sort of history is to be found as in the case of housing. 
Substantially ail known edible substances must, at some time 
or other, have been suggested or tried as component parts 
of the rations of fowls. Not only have many and curious 
substances been suggested as poultry food, but they have 
been combined in formulae as weird as a medieval apothe- 
cary's prescription. Actually practical poultry feeding is 
much more of an art than a science, in the present state of 
knowledge. While for pedagogical reasons it seems wise in 
the teaching of poultry husbandry to spend a considerable 
amount of time in calculating balanced rations and nutri- 
tive ratios, it is very doubtful if all such activity has any 
real or tangible relation to practical poultry feeding. 

Such attempts at a science of poultry feeding would ap- 
pear to suffer from a serious defect. The assumption is 
made in calculating a nicely balanced ration that all hens 
are going to partake of this ration in the same way. But 
this is very far from the biological actuality. Some individ- 
ual hens like no grain except corn, and if fed a mixture will 
eat only corn. Others are very partial to beef scrap, and 
so on. To any one who studies the behavior of fowls it is 
clear that the ration on paper and the ration in the crop are 
two very different things. 

The successful feeding of poultry depends upon experi- 
ence and acquaintance with fowls. The basic biological 
factor is, once more, individuality. Each individual hen 
is an independent living thing, possessing well marked likes 
and dislikes of her own with respect to food. There can 
be no question that the best results in the way of egg pro- 
duction and meat production would be obtained if a skillful 
feeder could feed each individual fowl by and for itself. 



22 Diseases of Poultry 

Evidence that this is the case is found in the fact, which is 
universal wherever poultry is kept, that on the average 
fowls kept in small flocks, of, say, under 25 birds each, do 
relatively much better than larger flocks. The production 
and money returns per bird are greater. The fundamental 
reason for this is that the birds in small flocks get better care 
as individuals. When a man has only such a small number 
to take care of he can recognize their individual peculiarities 
more easily. Furthermore an individual bird stands a 
better chance of having its peculiar taste gratified in a small 
than in a large flock. 

So while the biological ideal would be to feed each bird 
individually, this is obviously impossible in practice. With 
poultry the individual unit of production (the hen) is so 
small that it must be handled in flocks. The correct prin- 
ciple of management is to feed and handle a flock in such a 
way as to afford the maximum opportunity for the expres- 
sion and gratification of the individual preferences of the 
component units, with a minimum labor cost. The larger 
the flock and the plant as a whole, the more machine-like 
the methods of feeding and handling must be. They must 
of necessity be calculated to suit that mythical creature, 
the average hen. Coincidently the total production or 
profit per bird will diminish. Presently a point is reached 
in size of plant w^here the outgo exceeds the income over a 
period of years. Such a plant if it has a hustling business 
man at the head takes a fancy name to itself, advertises a 
great deal, invents a "system," writes and sells a book 
about it, manufactures incubators and supplies, in general 
endeavors to make a loud noise about what a profitable 
thing the poultry business is, and finally goes dismally, 
completely and permanently "broke." 

In the practical feeding of flocks of poultry large enough 
to be a commercial proposition, the methods which have 



Poultry Hygiene 23 

been worked out empirically by the successful poultryman 
are essentially attempts to satisfy the individual tastes of 
the birds to as great a degree as possible, at a minimum labor 
cost. This result is obtained in practice by ottering to the 
flock a variety of food materials so that they may have some 
opportunity of choice as to what they shall eat. If we feed 
corn, wheat, and oats the fowl which likes corn has the op- 
portunity to live on corn, wliereas the fowl which likes 
about three parts wheat and one part oats is able to satisfy 
her taste in this regard. 

As a result of this manifest need for a variety of food it 
has come about that the practice now generally accepted 
as best is to put regularly before fowls food substances 
belonging to four different categories. These categories 
are : 

1. Dry whole (or coarsely broken) grains (e.g., corn, 
wheat, oats, barley, etc.). 

2. Ground grains {e.g., bran, middlings, corn meal, 
linseed meal and other finely ground grains). 

3. Animal products {e.g., beef scrap, blood meal, fish 
scrap, green cut bone, etc.). 

4. Succulent or green foods {e.g., mangolds, cabbages, 
beets, sprouted oats, green corn fodder, etc.). 

The proportions in which these different kinds of food 
material are fed differ to a considerable extent among 
different poultrymen. The exact proportions in which they 
are given really matter very little, owing to the fact, al- 
ready brought out, that the hen compounds her own ration 
to her own taste if given the material. Furthermore it 
makes little difference whether the ground grains are fed 
dry or wet. It is cheaper to feed them dry (because of 
labor saved), and therefore the "dry-mash system" of 
feeding has become popular. 

There are certain basic principles of hygienic feeding which 



24 Diseases of Poultry 

must always be looked after if one is to avoid diseases. 
There are : 

A. Purity. — It should be a rule of every poultr^onan never 
to feed any material which is not clean and wholesome. 
Musty and moldy grain, tainted meat scraps or cut bone, 
table scraps which have spoiled, and decayed fruits or vege- 
tables should never be fed. If this consideration were al- 
ways kept in mind many cases of undiagnosed sickness and 
deaths, and low condition in the stock would be avoided. 
Keep all utensils in which food is placed clean. 

B. Avoid Overfeeding. — Intensive poultry keeping involves 
of necessity heavy feeding, but one should constantly be on 
the lookout to guard against overfeeding, which puts the 
bird into a state of lowered vitality in which its natural 
powers of resistance to all forms of infectious and other 
diseases are reduced. The feeding of high protein concen- 
trates like linseed or cotton seed meal needs to be particularly 
carefully watched in this respect. 

C. Provide Plenty of Green Food. Under natural condi- 
tions poultry are free eaters of green grass and other plants. 
Such green food supplies a definite need in metabolism, the 
place of which can be taken by no other sort of food material. 
It is not enough merely to supply succidence in the ration. 
Fowls need a certain amount of succulent food, but they 
also need fresh green food. Green sprouted oats, when 
properly prepared, are an excellent source of winter green 
food. Full directions for sprouting oats are given in Bulletin 
179 of the Maine Station. 

D. Provide Fresh and Clean Drinking Water. — The most 
sure and rapid method by which infectious diseases of all 
kinds are transmitted through a flock of birds is by means 
of the water pail from which they all drink in common. 
Furthermore the water itself may come from a contaminated 
source and be the origin of infection to the flock. Finally 



Poultry Hygiene 25 

it is difficult to devise any satisfactory drinking fountain 
in which the water is not Hable to contamination from litter, 
manure, etc. All these considerations indicate the advis- 
ability of adding to all drinking water which is given to poul- 
try some substance which shall act as a harmless antiseptic. 
The best of all such substances yet discovered for use with 
poultry is potassium permanganate. This is a dark, reddish- 
purple crystalline substance which can be bought of any 
druggist. A pound will last for a long time. It should be 
used in the following way : In the bottom of a large mouthed 
jar, bottle or can, put a layer of potassium permanganate 
crystals an inch thick. Fill up the receptacle with water. 
This w^ater will dissolve all of the crystals that it is able to. 
This will make a stock saturated solution. As this solution 
is used add more water and more crystals as needed, always 
aiming to keep a layer of undissolved crystals at the bottom. 
Keep a dish of stock solution like this alongside the faucet 
or pump where the water is drawn for the poultry. When- 
ever any water is drawn for either chicks or adult fowls add 
enough of the stock solution to give the tvater a rather deep wine 
color. This means 1 to 2 teaspoons of the stock solution to 
10 quarts of water. At the same time one should clean 
and disinfect the drinking pails and fountains regularly, 
just as he would if he were not using potassium permanga- 
nate. At the Maine Station plant for some years past no 
bird has ever had a drink of water from the time it was 
hatched which did not contain potassium permanganate, 
except such water as it got from mud puddles and the like. 
Dr. G. B. Morse,^ a well known authority on poultry dis- 
eases, had the following to say regarding this point in a 
recent address. After describing the potassium permanga- 
nate method, as well as two others, directed to the same end, 

1 Morse, G. B., "The Gospel of Cleanliness of Poultrymen." 
Reliable Poult. Jour., Vol. 17, No. 8, pp. 756, 757, 775-777, 1910. 



26 Diseases of Poultry 

but in the opinion of the present writers not so desirable as 
this, he went on to say : " Water-borne diseases are frequent 
in the poultry yard. Clean and disinfect your drinking- 
fountains (and you must) ever so well, if you are permitting, 
consciously or unwittingly, to run at large one bird sick with 
any of the contagious diseases of the head parts or with bowel 
diseases, you may count on that water supply being con- 
taminated in less than one hour's time. In the case of a 
large flock affected with flagellate diarrhea I have myself 
found the flagellates in less than one hour's time in the drink- 
ing water which had been sterilized and placed in thoroughly 
disinfected fountains. Do you not see where such a condi- 
tion as this forces you? Right up against the principle of 
the individual drinking cup. Ridiculous, do you say? Not 
a bit. I did not say ' the individual drinking cup,' but the 
'principle of the individual drinking cup.' Boards of health 
are recognizing that by means of the common, public drinking 
cup foul and terrible diseases are being spread among people. 
It is just so with your poultry, and while you cannot adopt 
the individual cup you can incorporate the principle of it 
in your hygienic methods by adding . . . one of the 
antiseptics named. It is true, in the proportions named, 
these remedies do not disinfect the water, only act as antisep- 
tics, that is, act to hinder the developement of bacteria 
and other microbes. The water itself should be changed 
frequently. This hindering of microbian growth occurs not 
only in the fountain but is kept up in the intestinal tract." 

III. The Land 

One of the most important considerations in poultry sani- 
tation is to keep the ground on which the birds are to live, 
both as chicks and as adults, from becoming foul and con- 
taminated. This is not a very difficult thing to do if one 



Poultry Hygiene 27 

has enough land and practices a definite and systematic crop 
rotation in which poultry form one element. On the open 
range where chicks are raised a four year rotation is operated 
at the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station and serves 
its purpose well. This system of cropping for the shorter 
period is as follows : First year, chickens ; second year, a 
hoed crop, such as beets, cabbage, mangolds or corn ; third 
year, seed down to timothy and clover, using oats or barley 
as a nurse crop ; fourth year, chickens again. When the 
land can be spared it is left in grass the fourth year, and the 
chickens are not put on it until the fifth year. The reason 
for the particular crops mentioned above being used is 
that they are all things which can be very advantageously 
used in furnishing green food for the poultry at different 
seasons of the year. 

To maintain the runs connected with a permanent poultry 
house, where adult birds are kept, in a sweet and clean condi- 
tion is a more difficult problem. About the best that one 
can do here is to arrange alternate sets of runs so that one 
set may be used one year and the other set the next, purify- 
ing the soil so far as may be by plowing and harrowing 
thoroughly annually, and planting exhaustive crops. Fail- 
ing the possibility of alternating in this way, disinfection 
and frequent plowing are the only resources left. 

The following excellent advice on this subject is given by 
the English poultry expert Mr. E. T. Brown ^ : "Tainted 
ground is responsible for many of the diseases from which 
fowls suffer, and yet it is a question that rarely receives the 
attention it deserves. The chief danger of tainted soil 
arises when fowls are kept in confinement, but still we often 
find that even with those at liberty the land over which they 
are running is far from pure. So long as the grass can be 
kept growing strongly and vigorously there is small fear of 
1 Farm Poultry, Vol. 18. 



28 Diseases of Poultry 

foul ground, as the growth absorbs the manure ; it is when 
the grass becomes worn away that the chief danger arises. 
The manure constantly falling upon the same small area, 
and there being nothing to use it up, the land is bound in a 
short space of time to become so permeated as to be thor- 
oughly unfit for fowls. The question is very often asked in 
connection with this subject as to how many fowls a certain 
sized piece of land will accommodate the whole year through. 
Occasionally one may see in some of the agricultural or poul- 
try journals this question answered, but as a matter of fact 
to give any stated number is most misleading. It depends 
very largely upon the class of soil, as some can carry twice 
as many birds as others ; it depends upon the breed of 
poultry, some being much more active than others, and thus 
requiring more space ; it depends, too, upon the time of 
year, because during the spring and summer, when there is 
an abundance of vegetable growth in the soil, a considerably 
larger number of birds can be maintained than during the 
autumn or winter. The number must be varied according 
to these circumstances, and no hard and fast rule is appli- 
cable." 

"The results of tainted ground are generally quickly 
noticeable, as the fowls have a sickly appearance, the 
feathers lose their brilliant luster, and the wings begin to 
droop. Roup, gapes, and other ailments speedily show them- 
selves, causing, if not death itself, considerable loss and un- 
pleasantness. One of the greatest advantages to be derived 
from portable houses is that they so greatly reduce the risk 
of tainted ground, as they are being constantly moved from 
one place to another, thus evenly distributing the manure. 
When it is remembered that each adult fowl drops nearly a 
hundredweight of manure in the course of a year, the im- 
portance of this question will be immediately realized. It is 
quite possible, however, provided that suitable precautions 



Poultry Hygiene 29 

are taken, to keep a comparatively small run pure for a 
long time. If the grass is short it should be occasionally 
swept, in this manner removing a good deal of the manure. 
Another important point is to always have around the house 
a space of gravel, upon which the birds should be fed, and 
if swept once or twice a week this will have a wonderful 
effect in preserving the purity of the grass portion. Any one 
who has observed poultry will know how fond they are of 
constantly being near the house, and thus the greater 
portion of their droppings falls within its immediate vicinity. 
The shape of the run also has a great bearing upon the length 
of time it will remain untainted, a long narrow run being 
much superior to a square one. I have proved by my own 
experience how true this is, and probably a long and narrow 
run, containing the same amount of space will remain pure 
twice as long. It is unnecessary here to go into a full ex- 
planation of why this is so, but I may state the fact, which 
I am confident is quite correct. If the space at one's dis- 
posal is very limited it is a good plan to divide it into two 
equal parts, placing the house in the middle. During one 
year one-half would be available for the fowls, the other 
being planted with some quickly growing vegetables, the 
order being reversed the year following. The vegetable 
growth has the effect of quickly using up the manure, and 
in this manner quite a small plot of land can be heavily 
stocked with poultry for an unlimited number of years. If 
the soil becomes at all foul it is a good plan to water it 
with a 1 per cent solution of sulphuric acid, or to apply a 
light dressing of gas lime." 

IV. Exercise 

If poultry are to be in good condition, and maintain their 
normal resistance to disease they must exercise. As chicks 



30 Diseases of Poultry 

they will do this on the range. In the case of adults (in 
cold climates) the most feasible way to bring this about is 
to provide litter and make the birds scratch for their food. 

V. External Parasites 

In hygienic poultry keeping the birds must be kept reason- 
ably free at all times of lice, mites, and all other forms of 
external parasites. Directions for dealing with this matter 
are given in detail farther on in this book in the chapter on 
External Parasites. It is desired here merely to call atten- 
tion to the matter as one of general principles of hygienic 
poultry management. 

TV. Disposal of Dead Birds 

On every poultry plant and around every farm there are 
bound to occur from time to time a greater or less number of 
deaths of chickens and adult fowls from disease or other 
natural causes. The disposal of these dead bodies offers a 
problem to the poultryman, the correct solution of which 
may in many cases become a very important matter. This 
is especially true in the cases of death from contagious 
diseases, which include a considerable proportion of the 
deaths of poultry generajly. The method usually practiced 
by the farmer and poultryman for the disposition of dead 
carcasses is unsanitary in the extreme. To throw the dead 
bodies on the manure pile is to invite the spread of disease 
on the plant. Burying is far from being a satisfactory way 
of dealing with the matter for two reasons. Unless the grave 
is dug deep, which costs a good deal of time and labor, there 
is considerable likelihood that dogs or other marauding 
animals will dig out the carcasses, and, after feeding on them, 
scatter the remains around on the top of the ground. 



Poultry Hygiene 31 

Furthermore, burying cannot be resorted to at all during the 
winter months when the ground is frozen. 

The only really sanitary method of dealing with dead 
bodies is to incinerate them. The difficulty of following 
this plan in practice is that the farmer or poultryman usually 
does not have any suitable source of heat ready at hand at 
all times. To be sure, during certain seasons of the year, 
those poultr^men who employ large brooder houses with a 
hot water heating system have a furnace in operation, and 
the dead chicks can be burned up in the furnace. This, 
however, covers only a part of the year. At other times 
resort must be had to burying or some other means of dis- 
posal, as the poultryman is not likely to fire up a large fur- 
nace for the sake of burning a few dead birds. 

To meet this requirement there has recently been devised 
at the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station the small 
crematory here described. The construction was carried 
out with the idea of keeping the first cost as low as possible, 
in order that there should be nothing about it which any 
poultryman or farmer could not easily afi^ord to duplicate. 
As a matter of fact, the cost of materials for the crematory 
was less than ten dollars. The labor was done by the 
poultryman and his assistant at odd times, when an hour 
or two could be spared for this work. The result is, there- 
fore, not beyond the reach of any poultr;^Tiian or farmer. 
At the same time the crematory is so satisfactory in opera- 
tion that any one who builds one will wonder, after he has 
completed and used it for a time, why he did not long before 
have so simple and sanitary an adjunct to his plant. 

The crematory shown in Fig. 5 is very simple in con- 
struction. It consists essentially of a cement base or fire 
box, bearing on its top a series of grate bars which are in 
turn covered by a cremating box or oven in which the ma- 
terial to be incinerated is placed. 



32 Diseases of Poultry 

The crematory is sufficiently large to take care of all the 
needs of a plant carrying 1000 head of adult stock, raising 
3000 to 4000 chickens annually, and in which a good deal of 
anatomical and physiological research is going on, necessitat- 
ing a much larger amount of waste animal material than the 
ordinary commercial poultryman would have. Therefore, 
it is doubtful if it would be necessary in any but the very 
largest commercial plants to build a larger crematory than 
the one here described. 

In building this an excavation was first made for the base, 
in which a lot of loose stones and gravel were placed, in 
order to secure adequate drainage below the cement. On 
top of this the cement base and fire box were made. 

This base consists essentially of a rectangular box made of 
cement, open at the top, and with a small opening in front 
through which the fire is fed and which serves as a draft. 
The walls are about 6 inches thick. The outside dimensions 
of the fire box base are 3 feet 4 inches by 2 feet 6 inches. 
The inside dimensions of the fire box are 2 feet 3 inches by 
1 foot 9-2 inches by 1 foot 4 inches. Across the top of 
the fire box there were laid, while the cement was still soft, 
some old grate bars from a small steam boiler, which had 
been discarded and thrown on the dump heap. These were 
set close together and held firmly in place when the cement 
hardened. They form the grate on which the material to be in- 
cinerated is thrown. These old boiler grate bars, besides cost- 
ing nothing, had another advantage ; namely that of their 
thickness and weight. When they become thoroughly heated 
from the fire below they will hold the heat for a consider- 
able time, charring and burning the animal material above. 

The incinerating chamber proper was made from gal- 
vanized iron by a local tinsmith. This consists of a rec- 
tangular box having the following dimensions : Length 2 
feet 2 inches ; width 1 foot 10 inches ; height 1 foot 6 



Poidtry Hygiene 



33 




34 Diseases of Poultry 

inches. In the top of this is cut a round hole, 12 inches in 
diameter which is protected by a hinged cover 15 inches by 
142 inches. This galvanized box has no bottom. It is 
placed on top of the grate bfws, and held firmly in place by 
cement worked up around its lower edges. At the back 
end of this iron cremating box is an opening for a stove pipe, 
which is necessary in order to give the proper draft. It 
is found in practice that only a short piece of stove pipe is 
necessary to get sufficient draft to make a very hot fire, 
which entirely consumes the birds in a few hours. The 
funnel may best be left removable so that when the crema- 
tory is not in use it can be taken off and stored inside the 
wooden box, which then sets over the galvanized iron por- 
tion to protect it from the weather. 

It is important in locating a crematory of this kind to 
plan matters so that there will be good drainage from around 
it. In particular pains should be taken to insure that water 
does not run into the firebox and freeze during the winter. 

In operation the apparatus works as follows : Dead birds 
are thrown into the incinerating chamber through the open- 
ing in the top and the lid closed, while a wood fire is burning 
in the fire box below. The aim should be to use dry wood 
and get a quick and very hot fire. This first roasts the 
material and then chars it, and finally reduces it to fine ashes. 

VII. Isolation of Sickness 

Whether one expects to treat the bird or to kill it, every 
individual that shows signs of sickness should be removed from 
the general flock. When the bird has been isolated a decision 
as to what will be done about the case can be reached at 
leisure, and in the meantime the flock is not subjected to 
the danger of infection. This is an important matter with 
young chickens as well as with adult stock. 



Poultry Hygiene 35 



The Essentials of Poultry Hygiene 

To summarize this discussion of poultry hygiene and 
sanitation it may be said that the essentials in the hygienic 
and sanitary management of poultry are 

1. Clean Houses. 

2. Clean Air. 

3. Clean Food. 

4. Clean Water. 

5. Clean Yards and Clean Range, 

6. Clean Incubators and Brooders. 

7. Clean Birds, Outside and Inside. 



CHAPTER III 

The Diagnosis of the Diseases of Poultry 

The first thing that the poultry keeper whose birds are ill 
wants to know is : " What ails my chickens? " Before he can 
use this or any other book on poultry diseases effectively in 
getting advice for the treatment of disease he must diagnose 
the trouble. It is the purpose of this chapter to help him do 
this, and in this way make this book more useful to the 
practical poultryman. At the outstart it should be said 
that the absolutely certain differential diagnosis of particular 
diseases of poultry, by the farmer or poultryman, either on the 
basis of external symptoms or post-mortem examination, is in 
nearly every case impossible. The best that can be done prac- 
tically is to determine into what general class of diseases a 
particular trouble falls. 

There are two general sources of information upon which to 
base a diagnosis of disease. These are : 
I. External symptoms. 

II. Post-mortem examination. 



external symptoms, with a table to aid in the identifi- 
cation OF THE CHIEF CLASSES OF POULTRY DISEASES 

There are certain external symptoms which are charac- 
teristic in a way of nearly all diseases. These symptoms 
merely indicate that the bird is sicU; they are of no value for 
purposes of differential diagnosis. 

36 



The Diagnosis of the Diseases of Poultry 



37 



These general symptoms of illness may be described as 
follows : A sick fowl is usually quiet, and does not move 
about unless disturbed. It stands or sits with the neck 
contracted so that the head is pulled well in to the body, 
giving the bird a "humped up" appearance. The eyes are 
often closed, entirely or partly, giving the bird a sleepy 
appearance. Often the feathers are roughened and stick 
out all over the body. The comb and wattles may be dark 
or, on the other hand, may be very pale. 

When a bird shows these general symptoms of illness it 
should be picked up and isolated and an effort made to 
obtain a more precise diagnosis. In doing this the following 
table of the chief external symptoms may be found of use. 

This table aims to direct one to the discussion of general 
classes of disease. The identification of special individual 
diseases should be attempted only after reading over the 
chapters covering the general class involved. In general 
it should be kept in mind that this table is not intended to tell 
the reader what the disease he finds is, but solely to tell him 
what parts of this book to read in any given case in order to 
make a diagnosis. 

Table of External Symptoms which may be of Some Value 
IN Differential Diagnosis 

The numbers in parentheses denote the pages to be consulted. 



Symptom 



Abdomen, swollen. 

Belching of gas. 

Breathing abnormal {i.e., too 
rapid, too slow, wheezing, 
whistling, snoring or in any 
way different from normal). 



Diseases which the Symptom named 
MAY Indicate 

Peritonitis (77), Dropsy (80), 

White diarrhea (283). 

Inflammation of crop (61). 

Diseases of the respiratory sys- 
tem (147), Crop bound (58), 
Arsenic poisoning (82), Peri- 
carditis (182), Gapes (304), 
Air sac mite (180). 



38 



Diseases of Poultry 



Symptom 


Diseases which the Stmptom named 
MAY Indicate 


Choking. 


Arsenic poisoning (82). 


Comb, pale. 


Tuberculosis (115), Dropsy (80), 




Air-sac mite (180), Infectious 




leukaemia (185), White diar- 




rhea (283). 


Comb, first dark then pale. 


Roup (155). 


Comb, first pale, but later dark. 


Enteritis (67). 


Comb, very dark. 


Liver disease (87), Blackhead 




(94), Ptomaine poisoning (85), 




Congestion of lungs (177), 




Pneumonia (178). 


Comb, yellow. 


Liver diseases (87), Visceral gout 




(200). 


Comb, -vvith white, powdery 


White comb (236). 


scurf. 




Comb, with wliite spots. 


Favus (233). 


Constipation. 


Simple constipation (69), Indi- 




gestion (70), Gastritis (63), 




Inflammation of Oviduct (262). 


Convulsions. 


Arsenic poisoning (82), Copper, 




lead or zinc poisoning (83), 




Epilepsy (196), "Harvest-bug" 




(227). 


Cough. 


Diseases of the respiratory sys- 




tem (147). 


Crop, enlarged and hard. 


Crop bound (58). 


Crop, enlarged and soft. 


Inflammation of crop (61), En- 




larged crop (62), Inflated crop 




(63), Gastritis (63), Cholera 




(102). 


Diarrhea. 


Diseases of the alimentary tract 




(57), Arsenic poisoning (82) j 




Copper, lead or zinc poisoning 




(83), Diseases of the Uver (87), 




Blackhead (94), Tuberculosis 




(115), Cholera (102), Roup 




(155), White diarrhea (185), 




Coccidiosis (71), Mercury poi- 




soning (83). 


Droppings, blue. 


Copper poisoning (83). 



The Diagnosis of the Diseases of Poultry 



39 



Symptom 



Droppings, bloody. 



Droppings, bright emerald green. 

Droppings, brownish followed by 

yellow diarrhea. 
Droppings, hard and dry. 
Droppings, mucus in. 
Droppijigs, sticky. 
Droppings, slimy and yellow. 
Emaciation. 



Eye, expansion of pupil. 
Eye, sticky discharge from. 
Face, swollen. 
Fever, marked. 



Head, warty nodules on. 
Lameness. 



Legs, roughened, with scales 

raised. 
Mouth, mucous discharge from. 

Mouth, white cheesy patches in. 
Neck, bent backward. 



Neck, bent forward on breast. 

Neck, limp. 

Nostrils, discharge from. 



Diseases which the Symptom named 
MAY Indicate 



Diarrhea (64), ISIercury poison- 
ing (83), Blackhead (94), En- 
teritis (67), Arsenic poisoning 
(82), Ptomaine poisoning, (85) 
Diseases of the liver (87). 

Cholera (102), Copper poisoning 
(83). 

Diseases of the liver (87). 

Constipation (69). 

Cholera (102), Diarrhea (64). 

Simple diarrhea (64). 

Nodular taeniasis (137). 

Tuberculosis (115), Aspergillosis 
(173), Visceral gout (200), 
Mites (213), White diarrhea 
(283). 

Arsenic poisoning (82). 

Catarrh (151), Roup (155). 

Roup (155). 

Peritonitis (77), Aspergillosis 
(173), Infectious leukaemia 
(185), Inflammation of oviduct, 
(262). 

Chicken pox (237). 

Tuberculosis (115), Aspergillosis 
(173), Rheumatism (199), Scaly 
leg (216), Bumble foot (326). 

Scaly leg (216). 

Congestion of the lungs (177), 
Pneumonia (178), Gapes (304). 

Roup (155), Canker (164). 

Strychnine poisoning (84), Con- 
gestion of the brain (195), Wry 
neck (202), Pericarditis (182). 

Ptomaine poisoning (85). 

Limberneck (199). 

Diseases of the respiration sys- 
tem (147). 



40 



Diseases of Poultnj 





Diseases which the Symptom named 


Symptom 


MAY Indicate 


Paralysis. 


Copper, lead or zinc poisoning 




(83), Strychnine poisoning 




(84), Apoplexy (194), Heat 




prostration (195), Polyneuritis 




(197). 


Pulse, very rapid. 


Hypertrophy of heart (184). 


Saliva, copious secretion. 


Arsenic poisoning (82). 


Skin, puffed out in blisters. 


Emphysema (304). 


Skin, scaly and incrusted. 


Body mange (226), Favus (233). 


Staggering. 


Congestion of the brain (195), 




Leg weakness (301), Ptomaine 




poisoning (85). 


Thirst, excessive. 


Hypertrophy of the liver (90), 




Peritonitis (77), Salt poisoning 




(81), Aspergillosis (173), Tape- 




worms (134), Cholera (102). 


Tongue, hard and dry. 


Pip (171), Diseases of the respira- 




tory system (147). 


Tumors, on head. 


Roup (155), Chicken pox (237). 


Urates, yellow. 


Cholera (102). 


Vent, mass of inflamed tissue pro- 


Prolapse of oviduct (203). 


jecting from. 




Vent, skin inflamed. 


Vent gleet (280). 



POST-MORTEM EXAMINATION 

Whenever a bird dies from a cause not entirely clear to 
the poultryman a post-mortem examination should be made 
in order to learn, if possible, from the condition of the in- 
ternal organs what it was that caused death. The poultry- 
man should familiarize himself with the appearance of the 
internal organs in a normal state of health, so that he may 
at once recognize any departure from these normal condi- 
tions. 



The Diagnosis uf the Diseases of Poultry 41 

The Normal Anatomy of the Domestic Fowl 

Before undertaking a discussion of post-mortem appear- 
ance it is desirable to sketch in a brief way the most essen- 
tial features of the normal skeletal and visceral anatomy 
of the fowl. If one will study this chapter with some care, 
and at the same time dissect a specimen, it will give him a 
sufficiently good understanding of the normal relations of 
the parts to enable him successfully to undertake for him- 
self post-mortem examinations of his birds. 

The Skeleton 

The bones of birds (zoological class Aves) are in their 
structure somewhat different from the bones of other ani- 
mals. The most essential difference consists in the fact 
that there are in the bones of birds, as a class, spaces which 
are normally filled with air, forming a part of the general 
air sac system connected with the lungs. The degree to 
which the bones have the capability of being filled with air 
varies considerably in the different orders of birds. In 
the genus Gallus (the domestic fowl) this possibility is small 
as compared with what obtains in flying birds, for example. 

The skeleton of the cock is shown in Fig. 6. Its main 
divisions are: the skull (1); the neck (5); the trunk and 
the limbs (wings and legs). 

Two parts are to be distinguished in the skull : first, 
the brain case or cranium proper (1) and, second, the face, 
including the beak (2, 3, and 4). As the skull bones grow 
together early, one usually does not see in the skull of the 
adult bird any division or sutures between the bones. 

The trunk skeleton includes the backbone or vertebral 
column, the ribs, the breastbone, and the limb bones. 

The skeleton of the neck (5) is made up of 13 separate 



42 



Diseases of Poultry 



vertebrae of which the first, called the atlas, is the 
smallest. The vertebrae of the back (6) number seven, 
but they are usually nearly completely grown together 

into one single mass 
of bone. To these 
vertebrae of the back 
(called the thoracic 
vertebrae) are at- 
tached the seven 
pairs of ribs (7). 

The lumbar verte- 
brae, of which only 
one or two remain, 
are in old birds 
grown together with 
the sacral vertebrae 
(17). Behind the 
sacral vertebrae come 
the caudal (18), which 
support the struc- 
ture known, rather 
colloquially, as the 
" pope's nose." 
There are six caudal 
vertebrae. 

The pelvis consists 
of three bones fused 
together : the ilium 
(19), the ischium 
(20), and the pubis 
(21). 

The breastbone (8) bears a high and sharp bony plate, 
the keel, to which the breast muscles are attached. The 
wings are supported by the pectoral or shoulder girdle of 




27 

Fig. 6. — Skeleton of cock (Gallus sp.). For 
explanation of figures see text. (After 
Diirigen.) 



The Diagnosis of the Diseases of Poultry 43 

bones. This girdle consists of the shoulder blade or scajnda 
(9), the coracoids (11), and the "wishbone" or furcula (10). 
In young birds the furcula consists of separate paired bones, 
the clavicles, and the small median ossification, the inter- 
clavicle. 

The wings include the upper arm, the forearm, the wrist, 
the hand, and the fingers. The upper arm bone, or humerus 
(12), is a single strong bone of the same length as the bones 
of the forearm. The forearm (13) contains two bones, the 
radius and the ulna. The wrist has only two bones not 
distinguishable in the figure. The ha7id (14) is made up 
from two bones which are united at both their upper and 
lower ends, but separated in the middle. In front of the 
larger of these two is the small one-jointed finger, the so- 
called thumb (15). The second finger (16), which is the 
longest and strongest, has two joints; the third finger is 
one- jointed. 

The bones of the leg are homologous with those of the 
wing. The bone of the thigh, the femur (22), is a single 
bone. The loicer leg (24), which in the normal position of 
the bird extends backwards and downwards from the knee 
(23), consists like the forearm of two bones: a large tibia 
and a very small splint-like bone, the fibula. At (25) is 
the hock or ajikle joint. Below this come the bones of the 
foot. The first of these (26) is the tarso-metarsus. As an 
outgrowth from this bone is the spur (31). Of the four toes 
the inner or hind toe (30) has two joints ; the second or inner 
front toe (29) has three joints ; the middle front toe (28) has 
four ; and the outer front toe (27) has five joints. 

The Viscera 

The main features of the normal visceral anatomy of the 
fowl are shown in Fig. 7, which represents a dissection from 



44 



Diseases of Poultry 





the left side of a hen 
carried out in such a way 
as to show the principal 
organs. Beginning at the 
anterior end we see, when 
the skin is removed from 
the bird, two tubes lying 
along the ventral aspect 
of the neck. These are 
the esophagus (1) and the 
windpipe or trachea (2). 
In the region where the 
neck joins the trunk 
there is a sac-like dilata- 
tion of the esophagus, 
the crop (3). 

Proceeding backwards 
from the crop the ali- 
mentary tube passes 
through the thoracic 
cavity and as it enters 
the abdominal cavity 
widens out into the pro- 
ventriculus (4), or glan- 
dular stomach. This 
opens directly into the 
gizzard (5) in which the 
mechanical breaking up 
and grinding of the food 
material is carried on. 

After leaving the giz- 
zard the food passes into 
the intestine. The first 
portion of the intestine. 



The Diagnosis of the Diseases of Poultry 45 

called the duodenum (G), forms a U-shaped loop. It consists 
of a left or proximal and a right or distal limb. Between 
these two limbs is situated an important digestive gland, 
the pancreas (7). Without any line of demarcation the 
duodenum is continued as the long, small intestine (8) back 
to the point of origin of two out-pocketings of the ali- 
mentary tract called the ceca (9). The point of origin of 
these organs marks the separation between the small intes- 
tine lying in front of them, and the large intestine or rectum 
(10) lying behind them. The rectum opens into the cloaca 
(11), a somewhat dilated chamber which opens externally 
by the vent. Into the cloaca open besides the rectum the 
ducts of the urinary and genital systems of organs. 

On the ventral side of the abdominal cavity is seen the 
large liver (12), consisting of a large right lobe and a smaller 
left lobe. Attached by a fold of membrane to the proven- 
triculus is seen the spleen (13), a small, ovoidal, red body. 
Just in front of the liver lies the heart (14), inclosed in a thin 
membranous sac, the pericardium.. The lungs (15) are light 
red spongy bodies which may be seen by turning aside the 
heart, closely attached to the dorsal body wall in the tho- 
racic region. 

Just behind the lungs is seen on the left side of the body 
in the female the ovary (16). Except in rare cases, the 
ovary on the right side of the body in the domestic fowl 
degenerates during embryonic life and only the left ovary 
remains to produce eggs. It is made up of a number of 
spherical bodies of various sizes called ovarian eggs or oocytes. 

Behind the ovary is the oviduct (17), which in a laying 
hen is a much coiled tube with thick glandular walls. In 
this tube the albumen and other envelopes of the egg are 
manufactured. At the anterior end of the oviduct is the 
infundihulum (18) or funnel. (For further description of 
the reproductive organs see p. 245.) 



46 Diseases of Poultry 

Above and behind the ovary and oviduct Hes the left 
kidney (19), a dark red body closely attached to the dorsal 
body wall. It and its fellow on the opposite side, the right 
kidney, consist of three well marked lobes, an anterior, 
a middle and a posterior. These lobes are embedded in the 
cavities which are made by the pelvis and sacrum. From 
each kidney a tube, the ureter (2), leads back to the cloaca 
and through this tube the waste products discharged by the 
kidney are carried to the outside of the body. 

The above account covers the chief visceral organs. 
Any one wishing to go further into the study of the anatomy 
of the domestic fowl will do well to consult the larger hand- 
books of vertebrate comparative anatomy. 

DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING A POST-MORTEM EXAMINATION 

The poultryman about to undertake making autopsies 
on his birds should provide himself at the outstart with 
certain necessary articles. These should include as essen- 
tial requisites, first, a good sharp knife with a pointed blade ; 
second, a pair of bone forceps or else a pair of very heavy 
shears with short blades ; third, a pair of medium size dis- 
secting scissors, and, finally, a wooden table or dissecting 
board on which to work. 

In making the post-mortem the dead bird should be 
laid with the breast uppermost on the table or dissecting 
board. The wings and legs should be spread out. A con- 
venient way in which to hold the bird is to drive a small 
shingle nail through the tip of each wing and each foot, thus 
holding the body in the desired position. Then with a 
sharp knife an incision should be made through the skin 
in the general form of the letter U. The ends of the limbs 
of the U should be just behind the shoulder joints. The 
lower dip of the U should be just in front of the anus. It 



The Diagnosis of the Diseases of Poultry 47 

will not be necessary to remove the feathers in making this 
incision. They may be parted with the knife, which should 
be a heavy and sharp one. The incision should be carried 
through skin and body wall. In the region of the breast, 
where the muscles are thicker, the incision should be made 
clear through to the bone. The bone may then be divided 
in the same line by means either of the bone forceps or heavy 
shears already mentioned. An incision- made as described 
will free the whole ventral body wall except at the anterior 
end. To free it at the anterior end it is necessary to use 
the bone forceps and cut straight across the anterior end of 
the body in front of the shoulders. Then the whole ven- 
tral body wall may be lifted off and the organs exposed in 
their natural position. In doing this one should be care- 
ful not to injure the heart or any other organs. 

One may then proceed to the examination of the dif- 
ferent organs for evidence of disease. Taking first the liver ; 
one should note whether it has any spots or is discolored, 
or whether it is of a soft, friable consistency, a condition 
known as "punky" liver. The healthy liver should be a 
rich chocolate brown color, free of spots and discolorations. 
There may of course be post-mortem discolorations due 
to escape of bile or other causes, but these may be easily 
recognized as such. Spots on the liver may be of several 
sorts, either small or large nodules of whitish substance 
studded in the liver tissue, or simply areas of different color 
from the rest of the liver. Again there may be all over the 
surface of the liver a deposit of white material, which indi- 
cates excess urates from defective kidney function. As to 
consistency, the liver should be firm to the touch, and not 
easily friable or "punky." 

The heart should be free of excessive fat and without 
tubercles. One of the most common diseased conditions 
of the heart is hypertrophy, wherein the heart is larger than 



48 Diseases of Poultry 

normal. One should accustom himself to recognize the 
normal size of the heart and then in a post-mortem exami- 
nation he can tell at a glance whether the heart is unduly 
enlarged. 

The lungs should be examined for evidence of congestion, 
old or recent, and aspergillosis. Tuberculosis of the lungs 
is relatively rare in poultry. In the majority of attacks of 
tuberculosis the lungs are usually among the last organs to 
be affected. 

Crop and gizzard are opened to determine whether any- 
thing in the recently ingested food has been causing trouble. 
It is also well to split open the trachea or windpipe to see 
whether any foreign bodies are present, or whether there is 
any accumulation of cheesy pus, indicating some form of 
roup, particularly the diphtheritic. Also, of course, a look- 
out should be kept for parasitic worms in opening any of the 
abdominal organs. 

In the abdominal region, after the liver has been removed 
or turned forward out of the way, the spleen may then be 
seen. This is a small dark organ which is usually one of 
the first to be attacked in a case of tuberculosis. Where 
this disease is suspected, careful examination of the spleen 
should be made to see whether any small white nodules or 
tubercles are present. 

The intestines should be examined for evidences of con- 
gestions, presence of parasites, or presence of tubercles. 

After having been examined the intestines may be re- 
moved and thrown away. Then there will be exposed the 
urinary and reproductive organs. In many cases death in 
hens is due to some impairment of the egg producing organs. 
One should look first for tumors on the ovary, which may 
generally be distinguished as dark colored bodies attached to 
the ovary, looking very much like a yolk in process of for- 
mation which has gone bad. The oviduct should be exam- 



The Diagnosis of the Diseases of Poultry 49 

ined for evidence of rupture of its walls, or the presence of 
concrements. 

The kidneys have normally a dark red mottled appear- 
ance. In cases of disease the most marked change to be 
seen is one of color. The kidneys may thus be either ex- 
tremely congested and much deeper color than the normal, 
or, on the other hand, they may be pale and take on a 
yellowish hue. Again they may be covered with a heavy 
white deposit of urates. 

At this point one may make a thorough examination of 
the peritoneum or lining membrane of the body cavity to 
see whether or not this is diseased. In a condition of 
health it is a glistening, thin, transparent membrane which 
lines the whole of the body cavity and covers the viscera. 
In cases of disease or abnormal conditions which cause 
peritonitis, it becomes a thickened whitish or yellowish and 
opaque membrane. 

If anything like roup or any other disease of the air pas- 
sages is suspected, examination should be made of the nasal 
passages in the head. This can best be done by opening 
the lower jaw and then with a sharp knife making a slit 
straight back from the corners of the mouth so to fold the 
lower jaw back on the throat and expose the larynx and upper 
end of the trachea. At the same time by cutting away the 
roof of the mouth one can examine the nasal passages proper. 

THE DIAGNOSTIC VALUE OP CERTAIN POST-MORTEM 
APPEARANCES 

In the table which follows the attempt has been to do for 
the post-mortem diagnostic signs the same sort of thing 
as was done in an earlier section for the external signs of 
disease. There are listed in the table the more striking 
post-mortem appearances which the poultryman is likely 



50 



Diseases of Poultry 



to meet, together with an indication of the disease which 
may have been the cause of each appearance. It is hoped 
that this table may prove usefuL 

Table of Post-mortem Appearances which may be of 
Some Value in Differential Diagnosis 

The numbers in parentheses denote the pages to be consulted.' 





Disease which the Appearance named 


Post-mortem Appearance 


MAY Indicate 


Blood, clotted in vessels. 


Thrombosis (185). 


Brain, blood clot on. 


Apople-xy (194). 


Bronchi, filled with mucus. 


Pneumonia (178). 


Ceca, inflamed. 


Coccidiosis (285), Blackhead (94). 


Ceca, partially filled with grayish 


Bacillary white diarrhea (287). 


soft material, not cheesy 




(chicks). 




Ceca, tliiekened and distended 


Coccidiosis (285), Blackhead (94). 


with pastj' or cheesy mass. 




Gall bladder, distended. 


.Jaundice (94). 


Heart, exudate in pericardial 


Fowl plague (112), Pericarditis 


cavity. 


(182). 


Heart, hning membrane red- 


Endocarditis (183), Myocarditis 


dened. 


(183). 


Heart, punctifbrm hemorrhages 

of. 
Intestine, bearing nodules. 


Cholera (102), Fowl plague (112). 


Tuberculosis (115), Tumors (312). 


Intestines, congested. 


Ptomaine poisoning (85). 


Intestines, filled with mucus. 


Enteritis (67). 


Intestines^ inflamed. 


Enteritis (67), Mercury poison- 




ing (83), Blackhead (94). 


Intestines, mucosa bleeding. 


Cholera (102). 


Kidneys, bearing cheesy nodules. 


Tuberculosis (115). 


Kidneys, congested. 


Ptomaine poisoning (85). 


Kidneys, enlarged. 


Diseases of the kidneys (199). 


Kidneys, filled with whitish erys- 


Mercury poisoning (83), Dis- 


talhne deposit. 


eases of the kidneys (199). 


Kidneys, inflamed. 


Cholera (102). 


Liver, chalky deposit on. 


Gout (199). 



The Diagnosis of the Diseases of Poultry 



51 



Post-mortem Appearance 


Diseases which the Appearance named 
MAY Indicate 


Liver, congested. 


Ptomaine poisoning (85), Dis- 




eases of the liver (87), Cholera 




(102), Infectious leukaemia 




(185). 


Liver, enlarged. 


Enteritis (67), Diseases of the 




hver (87), Infectious leuka?- 




mia (185). 


Liver, greasy. 


Hypertrophy of hver (90). 


Liver, pale with streaks of red 


Baeillary white diarrhea (287). 


(chicks). 




Liver, shrunken. 


Enteritis (67), Diseases of the 




hver (87). 


Liver, spotted (or marbled). 


Coccidiosis (285), Diseases of the 




hver (87), Blackhead (94), As- 




pergillosis (173), Cholera (102), 




Infectious leuksemia (185). 


Liver, with raised nodules. 


Tuberculosis (115). 


Lungs, congested. 


Pneumonia (178), Congestion of 




lungs (177), Cholera (102). 


Lungs, dark color and solid. 


Pneumonia (178). 


Lungs, with cheesy nodules. 


Tuberculosis (115), Aspergillosis 




(173). 


Lungs, yeUow membranous 


Aspergillosis (173). 


patches in. 




Ovary, with discolored tumorlike 


Baeillary white diarrhea (287). 


yolks. 




Ovary, without yolks. 


Atrophy of ovary (251). 


Oviduct, inflamed. 


Diseases of the reproductive 




organs (245). 


Peritoneum, covered with chalky 


Gout (199). 


deposit. 




Peritoneum, covered with opaque 


Peritonitis (77). 


exudate. 




Spleen, enlarged. 


Enteritis (67). 


Spleen, spotted. 


Enteritis (67), Tuberculosis (115). 


Ureters, yellow and distended. 


Cholera (102). 


Windpipe, yellow dust in. 


Air-sac mite (180). 


Windpipe, worms in, 


Gapes (304). 


Windpipe, yellow patches in. 


Aspergillosis (173). 



CHAPTER IV 
Poultry Materia Medica 

It is the purpose of this chapter to give an account of the 
drugs and remedies which the poultryman will find it well to 
be supplied with ; directions for making various solutions ; 
tables of weights and measures and the like. 

the medicine chest 

The following drugs and medicines will be found useful 
to have at hand. 

Calomel (Sub-chloride of mercury). — This drug is chiefly 
useful for its effect on the liver. The dosage is anything up 
to 1 grain at a time. A dose of calomel should be followed 
in the course of two hours or so with a dose of castor oil. 

Cayenne Pepper. — This is an excellent digestive and liver 
stimulant when given in the food in small quantities. It 
is also useful in cases of colds. In this case the pepper 
should be put in small gelatine capsules (size No. 4) which 
may be obtained from any druggist and a filled capsule 
then pushed far enough down the esophagus with the finger 
so that the bird will swallow it. 

Catechu. — Bradshaw ^ says that this "in powder or tinc- 
ture form in combination with powdered chalk is a good 
remedy for diarrhea. The average dose of powdered 
catechu is from 2 to 5 grains and of the tincture 2 to 5 drops." 

1 Bradshaw, G., "Poultry Farming." Department of Agricul- 
ture, N. S. Wales, Farmers' Bui. No. 51, p. 28, 1911. 

52 



Poultry Materia Medica 



53 



Castor Oil. — Castor oil is used as a remedy for diarrhea 
and as an intestinal antiseptic. It may also be used in 
cases of crop-bound fowls, although for this purpose cotton 
seed oil will be found to be quite as satisfactory and very 
much cheaper. 

Epsom Salts (Magnesium sulphate). — This is on the 
whole the most useful poultry yard drug. It is indicated in 
practically all cases of digestive disturbance and colds, 
bowel trouble, etc. The standard dose for an adult fowl 
is from ^ to 1 teaspoonful. 

The following table of doses of Epsom salts for young 
birds has been worked out by Gage and Opperman ^ : 



Age op Bird 


Amount per Bird in 
Grains 


How Administered 


1 to 5 weeks 


10 grains 


In feed 


5 to 10 weeks 


15 grains 


In feed 


10 to 15 weeks . . . 


20 grains 


In feed 


15 weeks to 6 months 


30 grains 


f Two teaspoonfuls 
, of water to every 


6 months to 1 year 


35 grains 


1 year and over . . . 


40-50 grains 


30, 40 or 50 
I grains of salt. 



There are several ways of administering Epsom salts. 
It may be mixed with the drinking water, or a solution may 
be made with warm water and put down the throat of the 
bird. Probably, however, the best way to administer a 
dose to a large flock is to give the birds no food whatever on 
the day that they are to be given the Epsom salts until late 
in the afternoon. Then having determined the amount of 
salts to be used for the whole pen of birds at the rate of 
from 1^ to 1 teaspoonful per bird, dissolve this amount 

* Gage, G. E., and Opperman, C. L., "A Tapeworm Disease of 
Fowls." Maryland Agr. Expt. Stat. Bulletin 139, pp. 73-85, 1909. 



54 Diseases of Poultry 

in water and use this solution to mix up a wet mash. Any 
ordinary dry mash mixture of bran, meal and other ground 
grain may be used for the purpose. The wet mash so pre- 
pared should be divided into several lots and put in differ- 
ent places in the pen so that all the birds will get a chance 
at it. This method insures a more even dosage through the 
flock than any other we have tried. 

Cotton-seed Oil. — A bland oil like cotton-seed oil (salad 
oil) is useful in many ways about the poultry yard. In 
treating prolapse of the oviduct, crop-bound condition, 
and in other cases, the oil may be used to good effect as 
a simple lubricant. Bradshaw says that in the case of eye 
trouble it may take the place of a simple lotion. 

Bichloride of Mercury, 1 to 1000 Solution. — To make this 
the simplest way is to buy of the druggist bichloride of mer- 
cury tablets, and ask him to label the box to show how much 
water a tablet must be dissolved in to make a 1 to 1000 solu- 
tion. If one desires to mix it up for himself ask the druggist 
to make up some 1 gram (15| grain) powders of bichloride of 
mercury. Dissolve 1 of these powders in a quart of water. 
Put in enough laundry bluing so that the color will be deep 
blue. Then the solution, which is highly poisonous, will 
never be mistaken for water. 

"1 to 1000 bichloride" is a germicide and disinfectant for 
external use, cleansing wounds and the like. 

Medicines in Tablet Form. — One of the most convenient 
forms in which medicines may be administered is in tablets. 
Wholesale and mail-order drug houses carry extensive lines 
of these graded as to dosage. They may be administered 
to poultry very easily and conveniently by holding the bird's 
mouth open with one hand and with the other thrusting the 
tablet far enough back in the throat so it will be swallowed. 

The following list of tablets will be found useful to the 
poultryman. They fairly well cover the medicines recom- 



Poultry Materia Medica 55 

mended in the body of this book. Any poultryman may 
get these either from his local druggist, or if he cannot fur- 
nish them, they can be purchased by mail at approximately 
the prices named. 

Approximate Price 
PER 1000 

Sodium salicylate, 3 gr $ .70 

(For use in rheumatism.) 

Aconite root, 1-10 gr 50 

(For use in fevers.) 
Antiseptic tablets, Blue, Corrosive 
sublimate, 7.3 gr. ; Ammonium chlo- 
ride, 7.7 gr 2.50 

(For making 1 to 1000 bichloride 
solution. One tablet dissolved in 1 
pint of water gives a solution of that 
strength.) 

Bismuth subnitrate, 1 gr 80 

(For intestinal irritation.) 

Calomel, ^ gr 40 

Iron, Quinine and Strychnine 80 

(For use as a tonic, dose 3 per day.) 

In administering tablets in the manner suggested care 
should be taken to see that they are swallowed, and not 
coughed up. 

An Antiseptic Ointment for Use on Cuts and Wounds of 

All Kinds 

The following ointment may be made up by the poul- 
tryman and will be found useful in the treatment of cuts, 
sores and wounds of all kinds of poultry and stock in general. 

Oil of origanum 1 oz. 

Cresol I oz. 



56 Diseases of Poultry 

Pine tar 1 oz. 

Resin 1 oz. 

Clean axle grease 8 oz. 

Melt the axle grease and resin and stir in the other ingredi- 
ents. Pour off in a tin box or can to cool. In making this, 
clean axle grease from a freshly opened can should be used. 

Tables of Apothecaries' Weights and Measures and their 
Metric Equivalents 

apothecaries' weights 

Pound Ounces (Troy) Drams Scruples Grains Grams 

1 = 12 = 96 = 288 = 5760 = 373.23 

1 := 8 = 24 = 480 = 31.10 

1 = 3 = 60 = 3.9 

1 = 20 = 1.30 

apothecaries' measure 

Gallon Pints Fluidounces Fluidrams Minims Cub. cm. 

1 



8 = 


128 = 1024 


= 


61440 = 3785.00 


1 = 


16 = 128 


= 


7680 = 473.11 




1 = 8 


= 


480 = 29.57 




1 


= 


60 = 3.75 




common measure 







A teacup is estimated to hold about 4 fluidounces, one gill. 
A ivineglass is estimated to hold about 2 fluidounces. 
A tablespoon is estimated to hold about 5 fluidounce. 
A teaspoon is estimated to hold about 1 fluidram. 



CHAPTER V 
Diseases of the Alimentary Tract 

The arrangement of the digestive organs in birds differs 
from that in other domestic animals in that the mastication 
of the food does not take place in the mouth. The food of 
birds, consisting mainly of grains and seeds, is swallowed 
whole into the crop. It remains here until it is completely 
softened by the juices secreted by this organ. The food then 
passes into the stomach (proventriculus), where it is mixed 
with still other juices, and then into the gizzard. The 
muscular walls of the gizzard grind the softened food against 
the small pebbles (grit) which the bird picks up, until it 
becomes a paste. This paste is then passed into the intes- 
tines and mixed with the secretions from the liver, pancreas 
and the intestines themselves. The nutritive elements of 
the food are transferred through the intestinal walls, by 
means of the activity of the cells composing these walls, 
into the blood and are carried to various parts of the animal 
to be used in building up the tissues. 

In the wild state birds are forced to hunt for their own food. 
They go about gathering in a few seeds here and there but 
probably at no time is the crop overloaded. Under condi- 
tions of domestication birds are fed only once or twice a 
day and thus the crop is often gorged with a day's supply 
of food. Further the lack of sufficient grit, lack of exercise 
and the feeding of rich, soft mashes cause the birds to be 

57 



58 Diseases of Poultry 

predisposed towards indigestion. Under these conditions 
poultry are subject to a large number of disorders of the 
digestive system. 

DISEASES OF THE CROP 

Imyaded Crop {Crop Bound) 

In general two immediate causes may be given for birds 
becoming crop bound. (1) The thin muscular walls may 
be paralyzed either through over-distention with dry grain 
or through some disease, as cholera and diphtheria. (2) 
The opening into the lower portion of the esophagus may 
become clogged by long straws, feathers or other substances. 
In either case the crop fails to empty itself while the bird 
continues to eat until the crop is greatly distended and 
packed solid. 

Impacted crop is a common disease of poultry. A large 
number of things have been assigned as a cause for this 
trouble. It is probable that the real cause lies in low vitality 
due to improper feeding and indigestion. Every poultry- 
man knows that very often fowls will eat large quantities 
of hay, straw, strings, feathers, etc., without showing the 
least inconvenience. If the digestive organs are in the proper 
health and tone they will usually take care of any overload- 
ing of the crop. It is only when the tone of the digestive 
system has been lowered by improper feeding, housing or 
by some disease that the crop fails to perform its usual 
function. Occasionally a case of impaction may properly 
be attributed to overloading the crop with indigestible 
matter. Such cases will occur only rarely and sporadically. 
If many crop bound birds appear in a flock it may be taken 
as certain that something more fundamental is the cause. 

Syviptoms. — The first symptom is a loss of appetite or 
an effort of the bird to swallow without being able to do so. 



Diseases of the Alimentary Tract 59 

The crop is seen to be very large and much distended with 
contents which are more or less firmly packed together. If 
permitted to continue, the condition becomes aggravated, 
the breathing difficult, and death may result. 

Treatment. — If a large number of crop bound birds occur 
in a flock, it should be taken as a sign that something is 
wrong in the management. Measures should be taken to 
correct errors in feeding and thus give the birds a more vigor- 
ous digestion. In such epidemics other evidences of indiges- 
tion are usually present and the particular treatment of the 
flock will depend largely on these other symptoms. In 
general the birds should not be fed too much at any one time 
and they should be encouraged to take as much exercise as 
possible, and should have plenty of green food. 

When a crop bound bird is found it must be treated indi- 
vidually. Treatment in such individual cases is quite often 
successful. The profitableness of such treatment must be 
decided by every poultryman for himself. If the crop bound 
condition is discovered and treated at the beginning of the 
trouble the bird will usually recover quickly and may make 
a profitable fowl. On the other hand if the condition has 
become chronic the vitality of the bird is greatly lowered. 
In this latter case it may recover but it will be a long time 
before it will repay the owner for his trouble and feed. 

If swelled grain is the cauSe of the impaction the bird may 
often be successfully treated without an operation. In 
this case first give the bird a tablespoonful of castor oil. 
After allowing this a little time to work into the crop begin 
to knead the hard mass. After this mass has been softened 
hold the bird with head downward and attempt to work the 
grain out through the mouth. If unsuccessful in this or if 
the impaction is due to clogging with straw or other material 
it will be necessary to open the crop. 

The operation for impacted crop is comparatively simple. 



60 Diseases of Poultry 

It will be easier if some person can hold the bird while an- 
other performs the operation. If assistance is not at hand 
the bird may be tied, back down, to a board or table. The 
operation should be done in a place as free as possible from 
dust and dirt. First, pluck out a few feathers in the median 
line of the crop. The feathers around the edge of the field 
of operation may be dampened to keep dust from them out 
of the wound. With a sharp, clean knife cut through the 
skin over the middle of the crop. This cut should be about 
1 inch long. Then make an incision about f of an inch 
long through the wall of the crop. The distention of the 
crop will cause the opening to gape, and the mass will be in 
plain sight. With a buttonhook, blunt pointed scissors, 
tweezers, or similar tools, take out the contents of the crop. 
This done, run the finger into the crop and make sure that 
there is nothing remaining to obstruct the outlet of the 
organ. After this is done thoroughly wash out the empty 
crop with clean warm (108° to 110° F.) water. The opening 
in the wall of the crop should be closed with 3 or 4 stitches, 
making each stitch by itself and tying a knot that will not 
slip. Then do the same thing to the cut in the skin. For 
stitches use white silk or (if nothing better can be obtained) 
common cotton thread, number 60. 

The above operation is not a difficult one and is usually 
successful. Care should be exercised to have the hands and 
instruments thoroughly clean. In sewing up the wound 
care should be taken that dirt, ends of feathers, etc., are not 
drawn into the wound. Chickens are quite resistant to 
infection with ordinary bacteria, but the results will be 
uniformly better if care is taken to exclude all chance for 
infection. The edges of the skin should be well greased 
with vaseline. For the first day or two it is well to feed 
the bird only milk or raw eggs beaten together. 



Diseases of the Alimentary Tract 61 

Inflavimation of the Crop 

Inflammation or catarrh of the crop usually accompanies 
more or less general disturbances of the digestive system. 
As a result of the irritated condition of the mucous mem- 
brane the functions of the crop are disturbed or arrested. 
This trouble, when not due to a generally run-down condi- 
tion and lack of tone, is usually caused by eating moldy or 
putrid food and, especially, 'irritating mineral poisons. 
Unslaked lime, paint skins, and common salt are some of 
the more frequent causes. Worms in the crop may also 
cause an inflammatory condition. It also occurs as a 
complication with diphtheria, cholera, etc. Inflammation 
of the crop is usually accompanied by more or less severe 
inflammation of the other regions of the digestive tract. 
The cause which irritates the crop also disturbs the mucous 
linings of the other regions. 

Diacjnosis. — The most prominent symptom is distention 
of the crop, and on examination the swelling is found to be 
soft and due to accumulated liquid or gas, mixed with more 
or less food. The birds are dull, indisposed to move, and 
there is belching of gas, loss of appetite and weakness. 
Pressure upon the crop causes the expulsion through the 
mouth of liquid and gas having an offensive odor, due to 
fermentation. 

Treatment. — The first step in the treatment of this dis- 
ease is to empty the crop as completely as possible. This 
can be done by holding the bird head downward and care- 
fully pressing and kneading the crop. After most of the 
contents have been expelled in this way give the bird several 
spoonfuls of lukewarm water and then empty the crop as 
before. Give a slight purgative such as a small teaspoonful 
of castor oil. The bird should be kept without food for 12 
to 20 hours and then fed sparingly on soft, easily digested 



62 Diseases of Poultry 

material. Two grains of subnitrate of bismuth and h 
grain of bicarbonate of soda in a teaspoonful of water will 
relieve the irritation and correct the acidity. Salicylic 
acid, 1 grain to an ounce of water, is also recommended. 
The dose is 2 to 3 teaspoonfuls. The feeding of mucilagi- 
nous fluids such as barley-water, thin solution of gum, etc., is 
recommended. If the inflammation is due to eating poisons 
antidotes as given farther on (Chapter VI) should be used. 
If inflammation of the crop is at all general throughout 
the flock an effort should be made to remove the cause. It 
is well to change the feed and give the birds more exercise. 
The addition of fine charcoal (small chick size) to the mash 
will often be of service, as the birds eat more of it in this 
way than when the charcoal is in a box by itself. 

Enlarged Crop 

One sometimes finds a bird with a very much enlarged, 
pendulous crop. This loose baggy condition is usually 
permanent, but in the majority of cases it does not cause the 
bird any serious inconvenience. 

The cause of this enlarged or slack crop is usually said 
to be overfeeding at irregular intervals. It is probable 
that overloading of the crop alone is not the only cause. 
Overloading accompanied by indigestion or some general 
disturbance of the digestive organs may result in a sort of 
paralysis of the crop muscles. It is not improbable that 
many birds showing enlarged crop have suffered with a 
mild case of impaction and have finally recovered without 
assistance. 

An enlarged crop and an enlarged "baggy" abdomen are 
frequently associated in the same bird. These are usually 
said to be due to too heavy feeding without sufficient inter- 
vals between meals and without sufficient exercise. 



Diseases of the Alimentary Tract 63 

Treatment. — As stated above, a "baggy" crop often 
gives little or no apparent inconvenience to the fowl. In 
the case of a very valuable bird it might be worth while to 
operate. It is said that this defect can be remedied by 
cutting out of the enlarged portion of the crop a diamond 
or oval shaped piece of tissue about 2 inches long and 1 
inch wide. The edges should be sewed together and treated 
as directed for impacted crop (cf. p. (0). The general 
surgical methods described in the chapter on Poultry Sur- 
gery (Chapter XXI) should be followed. 

Inflated Crop 

Occasionally birds both old and young are found with 
enormously inflated crops. This condition is due to the 
pressure of gas forming bacteria. It is probably caused by 
eating decayed food. The remedy for this trouble is first 
to remove the cause and then give a mild intestinal antisep- 
tic in the drinking water, such as 1 to 10,000 bichloride of 
mercury or 1 to 500 carbolic acid. 

DISEASES OF THE STOMACH (PROVENTRICULUS) 

Inflammation of the Stomach — Gastritis 

The stomach or proventriculus in fowls is a rather small 
organ. It is a thick, glandular walled section of the alimen- 
tary canal lying between the crop and the gizzard. Inflam- 
mation of this organ is usually associated with a similar dis- 
turbance of the crop. In a few cases there appears to be 
inflammation of the stomach alone. Diagnosis in this case 
is very difficult. 

The cause of gastritis is usually regarded as the same as 
that of inflammation of the crop (cf. p. 61). 



64 Diseases of Poultry 

Diagriosis. — In general the symptoms are very similar to 
those in cases of inflammation of the crop (see p. 61). The 
birds present the general appearance of being sick, viz., 
loss of appetite, indisposition to move and roughness of 
plumage. Constipation quite often accompanies gastritis. 
However, if the inflammation extends to the intestines there 
may be diarrhea. 

Treatment. — The most important thing in the treatment 
of this kind of a disease is to ascertain and remove the cause. 
Medical treatment without removal of the cause will do but 
little good. The kind of food which the birds have access 
to should be examined and any changes made which might 
remove the cause of the trouble. The addition of fine 
(chick size) charcoal to the mash and the generous use of 
good green food are recommended. For a time the birds 
should be fed often, giving only a small quantity at a time. 
A good cooked food is often more easily digested and will 
aid in stopping the irritation. Give the birds barley water 
or milk to drink, or add 20 grains of bicarbonate of soda 
(baking soda) to a quart of drinking water. Rice water 
to which 4 grain of arsenite of copper to each quart has been 
added is also recommended. In severe cases give 2 grains 
of subnitrate of bismuth 3 times a day in a teaspoonful of 
water. Counteract constipation with Epsom salts (20 
grains) or castor oil (one teaspoonful) once a day as long 
as may be necessary. 

DISEASES OF THE INTESTINES 

Simple Diarrhea 

In many fowls a condition of mild diarrhea is chronic 
throughout the lifetime of the bird. Again birds often 
acquire a slight diarrhea which will last for a longer or 



Diseases of the Alimentary Tract 65 

shorter time, but never becoming severe. In either of these 
cases the bird shows no symptoms of disease other than the 
watery droppings. No doubt such attacks are in some de- 
gree detrimental to the best health of the bird. In most 
cases of this simple diarrhea the bird will recover without 
any treatment. Nevertheless the careful poultryman will 
watch his dropping boards for signs of "looseness." When 
such are found in any quantity the methods of feeding and 
housing should be carefully examined to see if the cause does 
not lie in them. 

The normal droppings of a fowl are almost dry and retain 
the shape in which they are voided. They are easily re- 
moved from the dropping board and leave little or no stain. 
About i of the normal dropping consists of a whitish sub- 
stance. This is the uric acid and urates excreted by the 
kidneys and removed from the cloaca along with the feces. 

One not infrequently finds droppings which are more 
watery than the normal. These have a tendency to stain 
the dropping boards and do not retain the shape in which 
they are voided. This condition is best described as "loose- 
ness" and is quite different from true diarrhea. Looseness 
is not accompanied by offensive odors. Looseness of the 
bowels may be caused by a large number of things, such as a 
slight change of food, an additional amount or a new kind of 
green food, etc. Some individual birds appear to void loose, 
slightly watery droppings throughout life. Such individual 
differences are not uncommon among other animals. 

Looseness of the bowels is a condition which need cause 
no alarm, but when droppings are found which are sticky 
or liquid in consistency and have a yellow brown or greenish 
color accompanied by an offensive odor it is time to look 
after the cause. The evacuations described above indicate 
some form of true diarrhea. Very often the watery evacua- 
tions contain mucus and in the more severe cases small clots 



66 Diseases of Poultry 

of blood. A true diarrhea is nearly always shown by the 
soiling of the bird's feathers. 

Diarrhea may result simply from an upsetting of the 
digestive organs due to improper feeding or it may be a 
symptom of some more serious disease. Simple diarrhea 
may arise from the presence of indigestible matter in the 
alimentary canal, it may be due to exposure to heavy rains 
or to drafts in the roosting house. In the latter cases a 
cold develops which affects the bowels rather than the head 
and lungs. Diarrhea from colds occurs much more fre- 
quently than is generally supposed. This form of diarrhea 
can often be recognized by the greater amount of frothy 
mucus in the excrement. Young stock are much more sus- 
ceptible to diarrhea from colds than are adult birds. 

Among other common causes of simple diarrhea may be 
mentioned soured or decomposing food, too much green 
food at irregular times, too free use of animal food, allowing 
the birds access to water which has become soiled with ex- 
crement and allowed to stand in the hot sun until about 
putrid. Whatever may be the inducing factor the imme- 
diate cause is excessive bacterial fermentation in the alimen- 
tary canal. 

Treatment. — Simple diarrhea will usually require no 
treatment other than removing the original cause. This 
latter is by far the more important thing to be done. If 
neglected, the condition may become chronic and may result 
in more serious disturbances of the alimentary system. It 
is often beneficial to replace part of the bran in the mash 
with middlings or low grade flour. Where in addition medi- 
cal treatment seems desirable the first thing to do is to 
remove the fermenting material from the intestinal canal. 
This can be done with Epsom salts, using a small half tea- 
spoonful to each bird. This should be dissolved in water 
and used to mix the mash. If more convenient, a teaspoon- 



Diseases of the Alimentar]/ Trmi 67 

fill of castor oil may be given each bird. If the diarrhea 
is persistent, 3 to 6 drops of chlorodyne is said to be an 
unfaiHng cure. 

Enteritis — Dysentery 

For practical purposes we may associate most of the severer 
forms of diarrhea with the above names. Simple diarrhea 
was defined as either a temporary or chronic affection of the 
intestines from which the bird appeared to suffer but little. 
Practically its only symptom is the watery or discolored 
discharge. Under the names of enteritis, dysentery or 
severe diarrhea there are listed several of the more serious 
infections of the intestines. From the medical standpoint 
enteritis is the name given to affections of the small intes- 
tines, while dysentery is applied to the disease in the large 
intestine. The latter is usually accompanied by mucous 
and bloody discharges. In the diseases of poultry, how- 
ever, it is hardly necessary for any one other than a patholo- 
gist to distinguish between these different forms. 

Etiology. — A variety of causes are responsible for these 
more acute forms of intestinal trouble. It may be a bacterial 
infection coming from filthy conditions. Foul drinking 
water, putrid meat or decaying food of any sort may be pre- 
disposing causes. Toxic enteritis or poisoning is caused by 
the birds eating such things as paint skins, lye, unslaked 
lime, salt, ergot of rye, arsenic and copper (in spraying 
mixtures) (cf. p. 81). Further simple diarrhea may develop 
into the more acute form. This latter is due to improper 
food, water or housing, and is probably closely associated 
with bacterial enteritis. Various intestinal parasites may 
cause severe diarrhea. 

Diagnosis. — It is often very difficult to distinguish 
between the different infections of the intestines in the living 
birds. In all these cases the birds are inactive and appear 



68 Diseases of Poultry 

sleepy. The comb is often pale and bleached in the earlier 
stages but becomes dark purplish red later. Usually the 
birds will not eat, but occasionally they show an abnormal 
appetite. There is always a marked diarrhea which may 
vary in color from whitish to greenish brown or red. In 
the more severe cases blood clots are found. These differ- 
ences in the appearance of the discharges indicate to some 
extent which portions of the alimentary tract are involved 
in the disease. In the majority of cases the birds will be 
sick for many days or weeks before death takes place. 
Post-mortem examination shows usually an enlarged liver 
and spleen. If the bird has been sick for a long time the 
liver may appear shrunken. The intestines are full of mucus 
and inflamed. 

Treatment. — If possible the cause of the trouble should 
be ascertained and removed. This is by all means the first 
and most important' step to take. It is useless to spend 
valuable time in doctoring sick birds while the conditions 
which gave rise to the trouble are still present. In bacterial 
enteritis sick birds should be removed from the flock as soon 
as noticed. Houses and runs should be cleaned up and 
disinfected. Drinking vessels and food troughs should be 
scalded daily. Potassium permanganate should be used in 
the drinking water (cf. p. 25). Mix powdered charcoal with 
the mash. Feed less bran and more middlings in the mash. 
Do not feed too heavily. 

After attending to the above hygienic measures the birds 
should be given a good physic. A teaspoonful of Epsom 
salts to each fowl, dissolved in water and mixed in the mash, 
is the most convenient way of treating a large number of 
birds. 

For medical treatment the following may be recommended : 
Subnitrate of bismuth, 3 grains ; powdered cinnamon or 
cloves, 1 grain ; powdered willow charcoal, 3 grains. Give 



Diseases of the Alimentari/ Tract 69 

twice a day mixed with food or made into pills with flour 
and water. 

Subnitrate of bismuth, 3 grains ; bicarbonate of soda, 1 
grain ; powdered cinchona bark, 2 grains ; mix and give 3 
times a day in a paste made with wheat flour. When di- 
arrhea is arrested, bismuth and soda are no longer needed. 

It is often worth while to give a good tonic or condition 
powder to aid the birds in getting their digestive organs in 
order again. The following tonic is recommended by 
Salmon : Powdered fennel, anise, coriander, and cinchona — 
each 30 grains ; powdered gentian and ginger each 1 dram, 
powdered sulphate of iron, 15 grains. Mix and give in the 
feed so that each fowl will get 2 to 14 grains twice a day. 
(For another tonic see p. 71.) 

Constipation 

Constipation occurs in adult fowls far less often than 
diarrhea. It frequently passes unnoticed unless very 
severe. This trouble is much more common in young stock 
than in grown birds. In adult fowls it often occurs in con- 
nection w^ith indigestion, gastritis, or peritonitis. Among 
the specific causes of constipation lack of exercise and lack 
of green food are probably the most important. Occasion- 
ally intestinal worms will accumulate until they block the 
intestine. Sometimes following a diarrhea the vent will 
become obstructed with dried evacuation. This is partic- 
ularly apt to occur in young birds which do not roost. It 
is one of the symptoms of white diarrhea. 

The symptoms of constipation are painful and ineffective 
efforts to evacuate the bowels. In the worst cases the vent 
becomes completely plugged with dry, hard feces. The 
birds appear dull, listless and without appetite. 

Treatment. — When the vent is plugged with dried feces 



70 Diseases of Poultry 

the first thing to be done is to remove this. This can usually 
be done by soaking the mass with warm soapsuds. As soon 
as this is loosened a little the feathers can be clipped and the 
entire mass removed. If the case is of long standing the 
cloaca may also be filled with hard excrement. This can 
sometimes be softened by injecting warm soapsuds or a 
little olive or sweet oil. In all cases a purgative should be 
given such as castor oil, Epsom salts or calomel. 

Indigestion 

Birds frequently suft'er from disorders of the digestive 
system which are not easily classified under any of the 
diseases so far treated. Simple indigestion or dyspepsia 
most frequently results from overfeeding, and the feeding of 
ground grains and meat without sufficient green food are 
some of the causes usually given. 

Sympfoiiis. — The birds are dull and listless. They are 
inclined to sit on the roosts, and usually have but little 
appetite. Occasionally birds suffering from indigestion have 
an abnormal appetite and will eat ravenously quantities 
of foods which furnish but little nourishment, e.g., grit. 
Indigestion is often accompanied by either constipation or 
diarrhea. In the latter case the symptoms are similar to 
those described under simple diarrhea (p. 64). 

Treatment. — In treating indigestion it is important to 
observe the general rules of hygiene (cf. Chapter II). The 
house should be clean and as free from dust as possible. 
Sunshine should be able to reach every corner of the pens. 
The water dishes should be kept thoroughly clean and the 
supply of water should be kept pure and fresh. Use potas- 
sium permanganate in the drinking water as directed on 
p. 25. Use well balanced rations and feed at regular 
hours. Put fine (chick size) charcoal into the mash in 



Diseases of the Alimentarji Tract 71 

considerable quantity. Enough should be used to make 
the mash decidedly black. This is a very important meas- 
ure for the treatment of indigestion. Give the birds plenty 
of exercise. A small amount of a good stock tonic may 
help to bring the birds back into proper vigor. The follow- 
ing formula has frequently been used with good success. 

Pulverized Gentian 1 lb. 

Pulverized Ginger i lb. 

Pulverized Saltpeter \\h. 

Pulverized Iron Sulphate ^ lb. 

These substances can be procured from any drug store and 
mixed by the poultry man. Use 2 to 3 tablespoonfuls of the 
tonic to 10 quarts of dry mash. 

Recovery from indigestion may also be hastened by the 
following treatment. For the first week after the trouble 
has been discovered add one teaspoonful of Epsom salts 
to each quart of drinking "water. Follow this for two weeks 
with I grain of strychnine to each quart of drinking water. 

Coccidiosis 

This disease is produced by small protozoan parasites 
which attack various regions of the intestinal tract. There 
are a large number of different species of "coccidia" which 
frequently attack birds and the smaller mammals, such as 
rabbits, rats, and mice. They are very destructive to young 
birds and are said by some investigators to be the cause of 
one form of white diarrhea in young chickens (see Chapter 
XVIII). 

Many different species of birds are attacked by coccidiosis. 
Pigeons are particularly liable to the disease, and are fre- 
quently responsible for the outbreaks in the poultry yards. 
The transmission of the contagion from diseased to healthy 



72 Diseases of Poultry 

birds occurs by contamination of the food, water, gravel, 
and other substances taken into the digestive organs. The 
coccidia multiply with great rapidity in the intestines of 
diseased birds, and enormous numbers are discharged with 
the droppings and are carried on the birds' feet to the feed 
troughs and drinking fountains unless these are well pro- 
tected and of such form that they cannot be reached by the 
feet. Under any circumstances they are spread over the 
floor of the houses and the surface of the runs, and many will 
be picked up with gravel, grain, and other substances. The 
germs are found in the part of the small intestine nearest 
to the gizzard, where they cause inflammation, with redness 
and thickening of the intestinal wall. They are also found 
in the ceca, which are frequently thickened and distended 
with a whitish, yellowish, or greenish yellow, pasty mass. 
After two or three weeks the disease may extend to the liver 
and lungs, where it is recognized by whitish or yellowish 
spots or by large cheesy nodules. Geese are attacked by 
another species, which causes nodules in the kidneys. 

The life history of a coccidium is very complicated, yet 
in order to combat this parasite most successfully it is neces- 
sary to know something of its life history. Figure 8 repre- 
sents the different stages in the life history of one of these 
parasites. If one should examine with a microscope the 
contents of one of the ceca of a bird which died with a form 
of coccidiosis he would find forms somewhat like No. 1 
in the figure. 

These are the oocysts or permanent cysts of the coccid- 
ium. The membrane around the outside of this cyst is 
very tough and will withstand almost all methods of disin- 
fection. It will live and even grow in sulphuric acid. It 
can be killed, however, by drying. The size of one of these 
cysts is between 2 sVo? and sWfo inch. If this cyst is placed 
under the right conditions for development the first step is 



Diseases' of the Alininifdrj/ Tract 



73 



for the protoplasm to divide into four spherical bodies which 
are called sporoblasts (Fig. 8, 2). P^ach of these sporoblasts 




Fig. 8. — Diagnininiatic representation of the life historj' of a coccidium. (After Cole 

and Hadley.) 

then divides into two sickle-shaped sporozoids (cf. Fig. 8, 3 
and 4). These sporozoids are then set free in the intestinal 



74 Diseases of Poultry 

tract (4a) and each one penetrates with its pointed end an 
epithehal cell of the intestine as at 5. In the figure 5a, 
56, 5c, 6 and Go, represent the succeeding stages of growth 
of the organism within the intestinal cell. As shown in 
6a and 7, the parasite grows so large that it completely fills 
the cell. Finally these cells are broken down and torn off 
the intestinal wall. The stage of the parasite shown at (ia 
and 7 is known as the schizont. The next step is for the 
schizont to break up into a larger number of sharp pointed 
bodies as shown at 7a. These escape and enter other epi- 
thelial cells just as the somewhat similar bodies did at 5. 
At this point the organism may do one of two things. The 
small sporozoids from 7a may develop exactly as the 
sporozoids did from 5 to 7. This part of the life cycle, as 
shown by the shorter arrow from 7a to 5, may be repeated 
any number of times. 

If, however, the conditions are not very good, i.e., the 
bird is about to die, the sporozoids undergo an entirely dif- 
ferent development, as shown at numbers 7 to 15 (Fig. 8). 
Here the sporozoids enter the epithelial cells and some de- 
velop into very large (egg) cells (female element), as shown in 
8a. Others, 9a and 10a, form a very large number of minute 
motile zooids or sperms (male element) which unite with 
one or more of the large egg cells as shown at 11. After 
this sexual union there is developed the oocyst like No. 1, 
with which we started. At all stages of this disease many 
of these cysts are carried to the outside with the feces 
and upon being picked up serve to infect other birds. 
Death is caused by the parasite attacking so many of 
the intestinal cells that the bird is no longer able to digest 
its food. 

Other species of coccidia have different life cycles. Some 
are simpler and some more complex than the example 
given above. 



J)i.sca.scs of the Aliiit.enlari/ Tract 75 

Cole and Hadley ^ have advanced the claim that Black- 
head {Kntero hepatitis) is caused by a species of coccidium. 
This view is not admitted by others. (For discussion see 
pp. 94-99). Coccidia are, however, responsible for several 
serious diseases of poultry. 

The question of the identity of species of coccidia attack- 
ing fowls, wild birds, and other animals has received con- 
siderable attention. Fantham ^ has shown that the coccid- 
ium of the grouse which causes the dwindling of the broods 
in the early summer is equally injurious to young fowls and 
pigeons. Some authors have claimed that the coccidium 
of the rabbit {Eimeria {Coccidium) cuniculi) is identical 
with that in birds. Fantham gives the results of experi- 
ments which show that the organism from rabbits is entirely 
distinct from that found in birds (Eimeria avium) and that 
the former will not cause disease in birds. A similar con- 
clusion is reached by Jewett ^ except that he believes that 
under certain conditions the coccidium from rabbits can 
also produce disease in young chicks. 

Diagnosis. — There are no special external symptoms of 
this disease until in an advanced stage. x\dult fowls have 
considerable powers of resistance to this parasite, and the 
disease with them is more frequently seen in diarrhea, 
a chronic form. The symptoms are dullness, weakness, 
sleepiness, diarrhea, and loss of weight, although the birds 
retain their appetites for a considerable time. In many 
cases the only symptoms are diarrhea, with loss of weight, 

1 Cole, L. .J., and Hadley, P. B., "Blackhead in Turkeys." Rhode 
Island Expt. Stat. Bui. No. 141, pp. 1.38-272, 1910. 

-Fantham, H. B., "Coceidiosis in British Game Birds and 
Poultry." Jour. Economic Biology, Vol. 6, pp. 75-96, 1911. 

"Experimental Studies of Avian Coceidiosis." Proc. Zool. 

Soc, London, Vol. 3, pp. 708-722, 1910. 

^Jewett, "Coceidiosis of the Fowl and Calf." .four. Coinp. 
Path, and Therap., Vol. 24, pp. 207-225, 1911. 



76 Diseases of Poultry 

and after a time apparent recovery, though the germs con- 
tinue to multiply in the intestine and to be spread with the 
droppings for several months afterwards. Fowls affected 
in this manner may die suddenly without previously showing 
any serious symptoms. Post-mortem examination often 
shows the liver enlarged and disfigured with whitish or 
yellowish spots. The ceca are inflamed and often clogged 
wuth pus and fecal matter. 

Pigeons are affected with a more acute type of this disease 
in which the symptoms appear only a short time before 
death. Generally, however, they are dull and sleepy for a 
day or two, and sometimes they have a chronic form, char- 
acterized by diarrhea and loss of weight. 

Geese with coccidiosis of the kidneys lose flesh rapidly, 
without apparent cause, and become very weak and almost 
unable to walk. They remain quiet most of the time, with 
belly resting upon the ground. Some of them are con- 
spicuous by lying on their backs with their feet widely 
separated, and if placed upon their feet they take a few 
steps, fall, and resume their former position. In all such 
cases the birds lose their appetites and continue to get 
weaker until they die. 

Treatment. — Medical treatment of coccidiosis is of very 
little avail in the present state of our knowledge. Isolation, 
cleanliness and disinfection are probably the most depend- 
able treatment. Meyer and Crocker ^ claim that in an 
outbreak of coccidiosis in which nearly 1800 chickens died 
in from 3 to 6 weeks they had no success with any of the 
medical treatments used. They state that the epidemic 
was finally eradicated by isolation, disinfection and clean- 
liness. 

'Meyer, K. F., and Crocker, W. J., "Some Experiments on 
Medical Treatment of Coccidiosis in Chickens." Amer. Vet. Re- 
view, Vol. 43, pp. 497-507, 1913. 



Diseases of the Alimentary Tract T7 

Cole and Hadley ' recommend for treatment of this dis- 
ease in connection with blackhead in turkeys the following : 
" (1) Isolate the sick bird from the flock and place it in a 
dry, well lighted location free from cold and drafts. (2) 
Feed sparingly on soft, light, easily assimilable food, with 
little grain, especially corn." The chief preventive 
measures are to keep the birds on fresh ground ; to isolate 
any birds showing the least sign of disease, to destroy all 
dead birds and to protect the birds from contamination car- 
ried either by new stock or by other poultry or by wild birds 
as sparrows, crowds, etc. 

According to Salmon ^ the most successful treatment has 
been to put 3 grains of copperas (sulphate of iron) to a 
quart, or 15 grains of catechu to a gallon of the water given 
the birds to drink. They should also be given an occasional 
dose of calomel (f to 1 grain) or of castor oil (2 to 3 teaspoon- 
fuls). They may also be given castor oil containing 5 to 
10 drops of oil of turpentine with each dose. 

Peritonitis 

The thin serous membrane which lines the abdominal 
cavity and covers the internal organs is called the peritoneum. 
Inflammation of this membrane may occur in connection with 
the inflammation of certain internal organs such as the intes- 
tines, liver, kidneys, etc. In these cases the inflammation 
extends from the diseased organs on to the wall of the body 
cavity. Peritonitis may also be caused by the entrance of 
foreign bodies into the abdominal cavity. It may further 
be caused by severe bruises or injuries of the abdominal 
wall. 

^ Loc. cit. 

2 Salmon, D. E., "Important Poultry Disease." U. S. Dept. 
of Agrie. Farmers' Bull. No. 530, pp. 1-36, 1913. 



78 Diseases of Poultry 

Peritonitis probal^ly always follows the entrance of fecal 
matter into the body cavity through perforation of the 
intestines. Perforations may be caused by severe inflamma- 
tion of the intestinal walls, or by the puncturing of the wall 
by parasitic round worms or other parasites, or by sharp 
pointed foreign bodies pushing through. Birds have a 
pernicious habit of picking up bright pieces of metal, glass, 
etc. Cases of peritonitis have occurred in the Maine Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station flock which were caused by 
the entrance of partly digested food from the gizzard through 
a perforation caused by a small nail, a watch spring or a pin. 

By far the largest number of cases of peritonitis which 
have occurred in the Maine Station flock, however, have 
been associated with the failure of yolks to enter the oviduct 
or with the backing of partly formed eggs into the body cavity. 
Somewhat extensive studies ^ have shown that even when 
it is impossible for yolks to enter the oviduct the reproduc- 
tive organs pass through their normal active cycles. The 
yolks are ovulated into the body cavity. Further if yolks 
can enter the oviduct, but if their passage is prevented at 
some level of the fluct, either the partly formed egg remains 
in the duct forming immense masses (concrements) or they 
are carried back into the body cavity by antiperistalsis. 
These studies have shown that in about three-fourths of the 
experimental cases the birds are able to absorb these yolks 

1 Pearl, R., and Curtis, M. R., "Studies on the Physiology of 
Reproduction in the Domestic Fowl," VIII. On some Physiolog- 
ical Effects of Ligation, Section or Removal of the Oviduct. Jour. 
Expt. ZooL, Vol. 17, pp. 395-424, 1914. 

— ■ — "Studies on the Phy.siology of Reproduction in the Domes- 
tic Fowl," X. Further Data on Somatic and Genetic Sterility. 
Jour. Exp. ZooL, 1915. 

Curtis, M. R., "Studies on the Physiology of Reproduction in the 
Domestic Fowl." XII. On an Abnormality of the Oviduct and 
its Effect upon Reproduction. Biol. Bui., Vol. XXVIII, pp. 154- 
163, 1915. 



Diseases of the Alimentary Tract 79 

or eggs without any serious disturbance in their metabolic 
l)rocesses. Several cases have also occurred where sup- 
posedly normal birds were absorbing large numbers of yolks 
or eggs. These birds were in apparently perfect physical 
condition. The lumen of the duct was interrupted by fusion 
of the funnel lips ; development of a tumor within the duct, 
rupture of the duct, or failure of a portion of the duct to 
develop. 

Nevertheless in about one-fourth of the experimental 
cases, and in many natural cases of obstruction to the duct, 
death results from peritonitis, which is apparently caused 
by the failure of the peritoneum to resorb the yolks or eggs. 

Diagnosis. — The sick birds appear restless and lose their 
appetite. There is a high fever. The abdomen is swollen, 
hot and tender. Pressure on the abdomen produces evi- 
dence of sharp pain. Usually, but not always, a severe thirst 
accompanies peritonitis. As the disease progresses the bird 
becomes weaker, is unable to stand and the legs are drawn 
up close to the body often with convulsive movements. 

Post-mortem examination shows the peritoneum con- 
gested and covered with an opaque whitish or yellowish 
exudate. This gives it the appearance of being thicker 
than usual. In some cases quite large quantities of yellowish 
cheesy matter (pus) are formed. This may be in free lumps 
or masses or may adhere in a thin layer to the surface of 
the peritoneum. The abdomen sometimes contains a yellow- 
ish turbid serous liquid which may have an offensive odor. 

Treatmetit and Prognosis. — Only very seldom is treat- 
ment for peritonitis successful. The disease is not usually 
recognized until in an advanced stage. Ziirn^ recommends 
wrapping parts of the bird in wet cloths and to give inter- 
nally tincture of aconite, 2 drops (at the most) with a tea- 

* Ziirn, F.A., "Die Krankheiten des Hausgefliigel." Weimar, 
pp. 237, 1882. 



80 Diseases of Poultry 

spoonful of water 2 or 3 times a day. Sanborn recommends 
1 grain opium pills twice a day to relieve pain, and warm 
liquid foods such as meat juice and milk in equal parts. 

Abdominal Dropsy or Ascites 

Etiology. — This disease is sometimes called chronic 
peritonitis. It is characterized by the accumulation of a 
large quantity of liquid in the abdominal cavity. In some 
cases the abdomen becomes so distended that it nearly or 
quite touches the ground when the bird is standing. Salmon 
says : " If examined by slight pressure of the hand the swell- 
ing is found to be soft and fluctuating ; it will yield in one 
place and cause greater distention at another. That is, 
it gives the sensation of sac filled with liquid." 

Abdominal dropsy may begin with a mild case of peri- 
tonitis which has continued for a long time without becoming 
serious. In young chicks it is said to be due to an ansemic 
condition produced by bad feeding and insanitary conditions. 
In older birds it may also result from this same cause or may 
be due to some obstruction of the venous circulation either by 
a tumor or by some structural disease of the abdominal organs. 

Diagnosis. — The most marked symptom, of course, is 
the enlarged, flabby abdomen. Salmon says: "Fowls 
affected in this way are dull, disinclined to move, generally 
feeble with pale comb and diminished appetite." 

Treatment. — "Treatment of this condition is not profit- 
able, but in special cases, stimulating diet with considerable 
animal food, tonics and diuretics may be tried. Iodide 
of potassium or iodide of iron in doses of 1 grain is particu- 
larly indicated." (Salmon.) Tapping with a hollow needle 
or trocar through the skin and muscles of the abdomen 
and allowing the fluid to escape is also recommended. It 
will usually be found more profitable to kill the bird. 



CHAPTER VI 

Poisons 

Poultry on free range about farms and especially on small 
city lots often obtain poisonous substances. Most of the 
poisons obtained by fowls are the so-called mineral poisons. 
The chief symptom of poisoning by these substances is 
acute inflammation of the digestive tract. The narcotic 
or vegetable poisons on the other hand cause severe conges- 
tion of the blood vessels in the spinal cord and brain. 

Among the principal poisons likely to affect poultry may 
be mentioned the following : 

Common Salt, Nitrate of Soda, Concentrated Lyes 

Common salt is most frequently obtained in excessive 
amounts from eating salt meat or fish. Suffram ^ reports 
a case in which fowls were poisoned by being fed a mash 
made of potatoes to which salt had been added. Milk and 
other liquids, prescribed after 13 had succumbed, resulted 
in the recovery of the 2 remaining. Chemical analysis of the 
food in the crops showed that each bird had taken from 10 
to 14 grams of salt. From experiments instituted to deter- 
mine the minimum toxic dose of salt it is concluded that a dose 
of 4 grams per kilogram (about tV oz. per pound) of body 

1 Suffram, F., Rev. Gen. Medecin Veterinaire, I. 13, pp. 698-705, 
1909. 

G 81 



82 Diseases of PnuHry 

weight is sufficient to produce death. The fact that in 
these experiments one fowl resisted such a dose is thought 
to have been due to a certain toleration estabhshed by pre- 
vious repeated injections of smaller doses. Ziirn ^ gives a 
somewhat larger amount as fatal. He says that 15 to 30 
grams (^ to 1 oz.) of common salt will kill a healthy hen in 
from 8 to 12 hours. 

The writers had, some years ago, a rather serious experi- 
ence with salt poisoning. In this case the salt was mixed 
with wheat, probably as a result of the latter following the 
former as a cargo in the hold of a vessel. A number of 
birds died, and the whole flock was made rather seriously 
ill before the cause was discovered. 

Nitrate of soda is used as a fertilizer and is eaten by hens 
along with worms, etc., which they scratch up. Lye is 
obtained only when carelessly left about the grounds. The 
treatment for such poisons according to Salmon is to give 
" abundant mucilaginous drinks such as infusion of flaxseed, 
together with stimulants, strong coffee and brandy being 
particularly useful." 

Arsenic may be obtained either from rat poison or from 
various arsenical sprays used to kill insects. Copper is 
used in such spraying mixtures as Bordeaux. Where spray- 
ing has been done properly there should be no danger of the 
birds getting enough of the poison to injure them. Some- 
times, however, the vessels containing the mixtures are 
emptied within range of the fowls or the substances are 
handled carelessly in other ways. 

The symptoms of arsenic poisoning are given by Beeck^ 
as follows : " Secretion of large quantities of saliva, choking, 
hiccoughing, great anxiety and nervousness, little or no 



^ Ziirn, F. A., "Die Krankheiten des Hausgefliigel." 
2 "Die Federviehzueht," 1908, p. 828. 



Poisons 83 

appetite, thin, often bloody feces, slow and difficult breath- 
ing, unsteady walk, trembling and convulsions, expansion of 
the pupils. Death ordinarily occurs in a very short time." 
Treatment should be with sulphate of iron, calcined magnesia, 
or large quantities of milk. Salmon also recommends white 
of egg and flaxseed mucilage. 

The special symptom of copper poisoning is diarrhea, the 
copper giving a blue or green color to the feces. Evidence 
of violent pain may follow with collapse, convulsions or 
paralysis. The circulation and respiration are weak. 
Usually fatal in a few hours. Large quantities of milk, 
white of egg, mucilage, and sugar water are recommended. 

Lead and zinc poisoning occur chiefly from eating paint 
skins. The symptoms so far as they have been observed in 
poultry do not dii^'er greatly from those seen in copper 
poisoning. The treatment recommended by Salmon is the 
same as for copper. With lead poisoning the sulphates of 
soda, potash 'or magnesia are recommended with the object 
of forming insoluble sulphate of lead. 

Mercury Poisoning. — Mercury poisoning occurs chiefly 
through drinking bichloride (perchloride or corrosive sub- 
limate) solution or eating mercurial ointment. The bi- 
chloride solution is a common antiseptic and is sometimes 
carelessly left where the birds have access to it. Ammoni- 
ated mercurial ointment is used to free the birds from lice 
(cf. p. 205). It is sometimes left where birds can get at the 
supply. More frequently poisoning results from the too 
free application of the ointment. If it is left in lumps on 
the feathers the birds will eat it. In man mercury poison- 
ing is known to occur from too frequent or too long con- 
tinued use of bichloride as a disinfectant, especially for 
large wounds. In the fowl it is not probable that such 
extensive treatment ever occurs. It is possible, though very 
unlikely, that poisoning due to ammoniated mercurial oint- 



84 Diseases of Poultry 

ment may sometimes occur through the absorption from the 
skin. An excessive amount would have to be appHed to 
cause such a result. As the mercury in this ointment is in 
an insoluble form it is much less likely to such absorption 
than is the bichloride. 

The symptoms of mercurial poisoning are loss of appetite 
and frequent and sometimes bloody dysentery discharges 
from the bowels. At autopsy the mucosa of the whole 
intestinal tract is seen to be inflamed. The renal tubules 
of the kidneys are filled with a whitish crystalline deposit 
and the kidneys thus appear somewhat hypertrophied. 
Give large quantities of white of egg, milk, mucilage or flour 
and water. 

Phosphorus may be obtained from rat poisons or from heads 
of matches. If large quantities of phosphorus are eaten by 
the bird severe inflammation of the stomach and intestine 
occurs and death results in from 1 to 2 hours. If only a 
small quantity is eaten the symptoms, according to Beeck, 
are weakness, languor, ruffled feathers, lack of appetite. 

Strychnine is usually obtained by poultry from rat poisons. 
The distinctive symptoms here, according to Beeck, are the 
twisting of the spinal column and paralysis. The neck is 
twisted backward so that the head is often held over the 
rump. The treatment recommended by Beeck is to give 
inhalations of chloroform or internally 1 to 3 grains of 
chloral hydrate dissolved in 2 tablespoonfuls of water. The 
amount to be given depends on the size of the bird. 

Ergot of Rye is one of the vegetable poisons which some- 
times causes serious trouble among poultry. This is especially 
true in European countries. In this country so little rye 
is raised and fed to poultry that there is little chance for 
poisoning. The cause of the poisoning is a fungus which 
attacks the rye plants. The symptoms of ergot poisoning are 
trembling, intoxication, great weakness and gangrene of the 



Pomms 85 

comb, beak and tongue. The treatment is to give strong 
stimulants such as "brandy, coffee, camphor or quinine." 

Fowls are occasionally injured by eating the leaves of 
poisonous plants. The sense of taste, however, protects the 
birds in most cases. Mr. H. B. Green ^ says in this con- 
nection : " Woodlands and fields abound in poisonous plants, 
and yet it is seldom, except in the case of birds that have 
been starved of green food and have become ravenous for 
it, that fowls ever succumb to vegetable poisons as thus 
obtained. Protection apparently lies in the fact that un- 
desirable plants have repulsive flavors. Especially in sub- 
urban poultry keeping, danger arises when flower borders 
are weeded, seedlings thinned out, and plant rubbish swept 
up, if the resulting collection is thoughtlessly given to fowls 
in confined runs. Such birds are generally always ready for 
green food in any form and in their eagerness to satiate the 
craving the bad is often taken in with the good." 

Ptomaine Poisoning 

Fowls are subject to ptomaine poisoning. The cause of 
this is, of course, feeding spoiled or decayed food. Cases of 
this trouble are more frequent in small flocks where table 
waste is fed to a comparatively few birds. 

Diagnosis. — The more common symptoms of ptomaine 
poisoning in fowls are : at first an unsteady gait showing 
lack of control (partial paralysis) of the muscles. If the 
birds are badly poisoned, prostration comes quickly. The 
birds lie in a relaxed condition with head and neck curled 
towards the breast. The comb turns black. In some cases 
there is a diarrheal discharge, occasionally bloody. Death 
usually occurs in a short time. In some respects the symp- 

1 Illus. Poultry Record, Vol. I, p. 689. 



86 Disease fi uf Poultry 

toms are similar to those of "limber neck" (see page 
202). 

Post-mortem examination shows a congestion of the liver, 
intestines and kidneys. 

Treatment. — If the trouble is recognized in time the 
birds should be given a teaspoonful of castor oil. Follow 
this with sulphate of strychnine in doses of one-fifth grain 
every five hours. 

Treatment for Poisons in General 

In the great majority of cases a poisoned bird is not dis- 
covered until too late for treatment. Even if found it is 
usually not worth the poultryman's time to treat individual 
birds. The symptoms of the different poisons have been 
given in some detail with the hope that they may enable 
the poultryman to distinguish the kind of poisoning which 
they may encounter and may thus be able to remove the 
source of the trouble before other birds are affected. In the 
case of valuable birds the remedies indicated for the different 
poisons may aid in saving some of them. 



CHAPTER VII 

Diseases of the Liver 

A LARGE number of diseases of the Viver are described by 
writers on this subject. In the great majority of these 
diseases there are no external symptoms by which one can 
be told from another. The most common diseases which 
affect the hver may, for the moment, be divided into two 
rough classes which it is highly important for the poultry- 
man to distinguish. These again can only be distinguished 
in dead birds, but the occurrence of cases of either kind in 
any number gives the poultryman a clew as to what the 
trouble may be and a chance to correct it. In the first of 
these two classes a post-mortem examination shows the 
liver covered with nodules of a cheesy-like appearance when 
opened. These nodules occur not only in the liver, but also 
in the spleen, intestine and other organs and sometimes in 
these latter regions without affecting the liver at all. With 
such symptoms we may be fairly certain that the trouble is 
tuberculosis and for a further discussion of this the reader 
is referred to Chapter IX. 

In the second class of these diseases the liver is usually 
greatly enlarged, although in some cases it is shrunken and 
smaller than normal. With some of these diseases the liver 
may be spotted or marbled, but the condition is quite dif- 
ferent from the cheesy nodules found in tuberculosis. 

It is to this second class of diseases that the name "liver 
disease" properly belongs. "Liver disease" as popularly 

87 



88 Diseases of Poultry 

interpreted includes a number of different diseases distin- 
guished by the patliologist. The more common are : Con- 
gestion of the Liver, Inflammation of the Liver, Atrophy of 
the Liver, Hypertrophy or Enlargement of the Liver, Fatty 
Degeneration of the Liver, and Jaundice. 

The diagnosis of these difterent diseases is based entirely 
on the post-mortem appearances. Li no one of them are 
there any outward symptoms which distinguish it from the 
others. Vale says it is impossible for the most scientific 
observer to diagnose either inflammation or congestion of 
the liver with positive certainty. 

Further not only the symptoms, but also the causes and 
the treatments of these several diseases are essentially the 
same. The names of the diseases themselves indicate in a 
general way the post-mortem appearances. 

For these reasons it seems best to give a brief discussion 
of the general causes of "liver disease" and the usual treat- 
ment. This will be followed by a brief account of each 
disease and its special symptoms and treatment, if any. 

Cause of Liver Disease. — Lack of exercise and over-feed- 
ing, especially with rich albuminous foods, are the most 
common causes of diseases of the liver. In addition to 
these may be mentioned the obstruction of the circulation 
of the blood by disease of the heart and lungs. Congestion 
of the liver may be caused by any disease of the crop, giz- 
zard or bowels that obstructs the circulation of the blood. 

Undoubtedly the larger proportion of liver troubles 
results from improper feeding and housing. It is a common 
experience that complaints are more frequent in the latter 
part of the winter. The birds have been housed for some 
time without sufficient exercise and fed rich nitrogenous 
food. These causes operate slowly and since there are no 
outward symptoms of liver disease the poultryman is usually 
unaware of any trouble until his birds begin dying in the 



Diseases of the Liver 89 

early spring. The conditions have then continued so long 
that it is often difficult to counteract them. This point 
emphasizes the necessity of keeping the flock under sanitary 
and healthful conditions. 

Diagnosis of Liver Disease. — ^ There are no special external 
symptoms. Some of the symptoms which often accom- 
pany these disturbances are : rough plumage, watery 
diarrhea, first brownish, then yellow ; lack of appetite 
and indisposition to move. The comb may be purplish at 
first, becoming dark and then quite black. These, however, 
are all merely sjTuptoms of disease in general that might 
apply to any one of a dozen or more ailments. The only 
certain method of recognizing the disease is by post-mor- 
tem examination. Every poultryman should be familiar 
enough with the normal appearance of the more important 
internal organs of a fowl to recognize abnormal appearances 
(see pp. 43-46). In general, when post-mortem examina- 
tion shows the liver larger or smaller than normal, or con- 
gested with blood, or marbled, or spotted, we may assume 
that the bird probably had some form of liver disease. Of 
course, a diseased condition of the liver is often associated 
with other diseases, especially of the alimentary canal. 
Other organs should be examined in all cases to see if they 
are normal. Special care should be taken to distinguish 
tuberculosis from other diseased conditions of the liver and 
intestines. 

Treatment. • — Since it is not possible to recognize diseases 
of the liver by external symptoms, the treatment of indi- 
vidual birds is out of the question. If, however, post-mor- 
tem examinations show that a number of the birds are 
dying with liver trouble it is necessary to take some remedial 
measures regarding the entire flock. 

The first thing that should be done is to change the diet. 
Less meat scrap and other nitrogenous food should be fed. 



90 Diseases of Poultry 

Less corn should be given and more green food added to the 
ration. The birds should be compelled to exercise more. 
If it is at all possible they should be gotten out of doors part 
of each day. They should have plenty of fresh air day and 
night. 

These general remedial measures are only those which 
should be practiced at all times as a matter of general 
hygiene. When a flock has once become badly affected with 
some form of liver disease it cannot be expected that the 
changed conditions will remedy all of the trouble at once. 
The causes which have led to the diseased condition have 
been acting for a long time and it is only reasonable to expect 
that it will take some time to get the birds back into normal 
health again. Some birds will continue to become sick and 
die, even several weeks after the corrective measures have 
been put into operation. Robinson ^ advises disposing of 
the entire flock when they have been through a serious 
attack of liver disease and replacing them with healthy stock. 
This seems to be a more drastic measure than necessary 
unless the attack has been very bad indeed. Many other 
things, such as the value of the particular strain, the possi- 
bility of replacing the flock with as well bred birds, etc., 
should be considered. 

With regard to the special diseases already mentioned the 
one most commonly met with, on intensive plants at least, is 

Hypertrophy or Enlargement of the Liver 

The cause of this trouble is chiefly concerned with food. 
In our climate it occurs most frequently towards the end of 
the winter. The birds have been confined to their houses 
most or all of the winter months. Very often they are over- 

1 Robinson, J. H., "The Common Sense Poultry Doctor." 
Boston, 1910. 



Diseases of the Liver 91 

crowded. The rich winter ration is continued after tlie 
weather begins to get warm and less heating food is needed. 
This combined with too httle exercise and not enough 
green food favor indigestion and the accompanying shiggish 
action of gizzard and intestines. These are the immediate 
causes of trouble with the liver. It is said that feeding too 
much corn and barley is also responsible for much liver 
trouble. 

Symptoms. — INIr. H. B. Green, ^ gives the following symp- 
toms of hypertrophy of the liver. He believes this to 
be only a stage in the fatty degeneration of this organ. 
"The first sign that a fowl is tending tow^ards fatty disease 
of the liver is increase in weight. The comb, wattles and 
face remain a bright red or take on a dull bluish tinge 
from congestion. This sign of sluggish circulation tells of 
full blood vessels, and explains how it is that apoplexy so 
frequently supervenes at this period. The excrement is an 
important symptom to note. It is generally at first semi- 
liquid, of a dark yellow color, and evacuations are frequent. 
Thirst is noticeable and a large quantity of water is drunk, 
especially after feeding. The appetite remains good, al- 
though the bird is capricious in what it eats. A post- 
mortem examination of a fowl in this phase of the disease 
will show a liver considerably enlarged, of a deep red color, 
engorged with blood, shining and greasy as though it had 
been soaked in oil, but fairly firm under the knife. The 
intestines are laden with masses of fat, so also are the 
mesentery, — or as it is termed by butchers, 'the leaf,' — the 
ovary and oviduct." 

In the next stage "Diarrhea increases, the excrement 
perhaps bloodstained or blackened by congealed clots ; the 
face, comb and wattles become a darker hue or if jaundice 

1 Illustrated Poultry Record, 1909, p. 691. 



92 Diseases of Poultry 

supervenes they may be pale or tinged with yellow bile ; 
more fat is laid on internally and the liver will prove to be 
greatly enlarged. So large may this become by the deposit 
of fat globules between and in the substance of its cells that 
on one occasion I have removed from an Orpington cock a 
liver that turned the scale at a pound and a half. This 
stage is seldom passed and death usually takes place from 
syncope, or an accidental rupture of the softened liver." 

Treatment. — Green says further : " Part of the treatment 
consists of a plentiful allowance of green food. Nothing in 
this way is better than freshly gathered dandelion leaves 
when procurable, for the taraxacum they contain is a valu- 
able liver stimulant. It is not generally known that the 
sliced roots of the plants can be steeped in boiling water to 
make an infusion equally effective when the leaves are no 
longer obtainable. The roots should be gathered and 
stored in dry boxes. The infusion is conveniently mixed 
with the morning soft food and is always beneficial to birds 
in confinement as an occasional liver tonic." 

Fatty Degeneration 

As noted in the above paragraphs, Green regards this 
disease as a later stage in the hypertrophy of the liver. 
Salmon, on the other hand, believes it to be a quite different 
disease. The latter author says : " On yost-mortem exam- 
ination the liver is found shrunken, hardened and marbled 
or spotted with areas of grayish or yellowish tissue. A 
microscopic examination shows the liver cells to contain 
droplets of fat and the liver tissue degenerated and largely 
replaced by yellow fat globules. 

As the disease is not recognized during life, treatment is 
out of the question. If a number of cases occur in the same 
flock, give greater variety of food and a run on the grass. In 



DlseaMS of the Liver 93 

addition, bicarbonate of soda may be given in the drinking 
water to the amonnt of 1 or 2 grains a day for each bird." 

Atrophy or Wasting of the Liver 

This is very similar in many respects to the disease de- 
scribed by Salmon as fatty degeneration and probably arises 
from the same cause, i.e., lack of variety in the food, espe- 
cially lack of green food. 

The post-mortem appearance and the treatment are the 
same as those given for fatty degeneration above. With 
both of the diseases a weekly dose of some laxative such as 
Epsom salts dissolved in water and mixed with the mash (a 
level teaspoonful to each bird) is to be recommended. 

Congestion arid Inflammation of the Liver 

These are probably different stages of the same disease. 
The poultryman will find difficulty in distinguishing between 
this disease and that known as hypertrophy of the liver 
(cf. p. 90). The chief post-mortem difference is that in 
the latter disease the liver is more solid, not so easily torn 
or ruptured. 

Diagnosis. — There are no external symptoms other than 
those of dullness and the general symptoms of disease, 
Salmon says : " It is difficult to make a diagnosis during the 
life of the bird. Post-mortem examination reveals a greatly 
enlarged liver engorged with blood, tender and easily torn 
or crushed." 

Treatment. — Treatment of these diseases in individual 
birds is very rarely successful. The general treatment of 
the flock as recommended on page 89 should be attended to. 
The chief medicinal treatment should probably be frequent 
doses of Epsom salts. 



94 Diseases of Poultry 

Epsom salts together with bicarbonate of soda, 10 grains 
of each, given for 4 or 5 daily doses may be recommended 
also. This should be followed by the addition of a good 
tonic to the mash. (For stock tonic formula see p. 71.) 

Jaundice 

Jaundice or biliary repletion is said by Megnin to be due 
to long continued but moderate congestion of the liver. 
This leads to increased activity of this organ and is followed 
by the accumulation of a large quantity of bile in the gall 
bladder and ducts of the bird. This bile is absorbed by the 
blood vessels and causes poisoning which may lead to the 
death of the bird. 

Diagnosis. — There are no specific external symptoms 
other than that the wattles and comb may be yellowish. 
This also occurs in other liver diseases. Post-mortem 
examination shows the gall bladder greatly distended with 
bile. 

Treatment. — Give greater variety of food, especially more 
green food. Give Epsom salts frequently. Megnin recom- 
mends ^ to 1 grain of aloes. 

This completes the list of the liver diseases most commonly 
treated as such by poultry veterinarians. There are a num- 
ber of other diseases which especially affect the liver or are 
caused by deranged fvmction of this organ. These may most 
conveniently be mentioned at this place. 

Blackhead {Infectious Enterohepatitis) 

Blackhead is a contagious disease affecting the liver and 
intestines, especially the blind pouches or ceca of the latter. 
The disease is very quickly fatal among turkeys. The 
turkey is apparently more susceptible than any other bird 



Diseases of the Liver 



95 



to this disease. In certain portions of this country where 
once turkey raising was a promising industry it has practi- 
cally vanished because of this disease. The disease is not 
usually as fatal to adult chickens but may cause very serious 
losses at times. It is believed by several prominent investi- 
gators of this disease that white diarrhea, so destructive to 
young chicks, is caused by the same organism as blackhead. 
(For further discussion of this see Chapter XVIII.) 

The cause of blackhead disease according to Theobald 
Smith ^ is a minute par- 
asitic protozoon known as 
Amoeba mele a g r idis. 
These appear as minute 
round bodies not more 
than 10 microns (I'sW 
inch) in diameter em- 
bedded in the submucous 
and intramuscular tissue 
of the wall of the ceca 
and may extend even be- 
yond these to the mesen- 
teries. In the liver there 
are circular spots (Fig. 
9) representing partial 
necrosis of the liver tissue and in these spots the same or- 
ganisms are also present in great numbers. The analogy 
between this organism and that concerned in human amoe- 
biasis is very close. 

More recently Cole and Hadley ^ at the Rhode Island 




Fig. 9. — Showing condition of liver in 
"blackhead." (Modified after Moore.) 



1 Smith, Theobald., "An Infectious Disease among Turkeys 
Caused by Protozoa (Infectious enterohepatitis)." U. S. Dept. 
of Agr., Bur. Anim. Ind., Bui. 8. pp. 7-38, 1895. 

- Cole, L. J., and Hadley, P. B., "Blackhead in Turkeys." Rhode 
Island Expt. Stat. Bui. No. 141, pp. 138-272, 1910. 



96 Disea,ses of Poultry 

Experiment Station have claimed that the causative or- 
ganism belongs to another group of protozoa known as 
Coccidia. The point to the discussion as to the cause of this 
disease lies in the fact that the Coccidium has a very different 
life history (cf. p. 73) from the Amoeba, consequently it 
has different methods of dispersal and different means must 
be used in combating it. 

Cole and Hadley claim that the amoeba described by 
Smith is one of the stages in the life history of the coccidium. 
Smith, however, in a more recent paper ^ reaffirms his posi- 
tion with regard to the amoebic cause of the disease. He 
claims that the Rhode Island authors have confused the 
fact that coccidia are frequently present in birds as an 
entirely separate infection. He states that there is "ample 
evidence to show that enterohepatitis may run its course in a 
flock without the presence of a single coccidium cyst to sug- 
gest coccidiosis. It is evident that coccidiosis among birds 
has been frequently seen during the past 30 years but with- 
out involvement of the liver." 

These criticisms by Smith were partially answered by 
Cole and Hadley ^ but the chain of evidence presented by 
them is far from complete. Not until the complete life 
history of the coccidium has been worked out will there be 
conclusive evidence as to whether or not it is concerned in 
this disease. In the meantime it appears that the conten- 
tion of Smith is well founded, viz., that the amoeba and the 
coccidium are separate entities and that the latter when 
present is only a secondary infection. 

The method of infection by the amoeba is as follows, the 
account being based upon that given by Salmon (loc. cit.) : 

1 Smith, Theobald, "Amoeba meleagridis." Science, N. S., 
Vol. 32, pp. 509-512, 1910. 

- Cole, L. J., and Hadley, P. B., "Amoeba meleagridis." Science, 
N. S., Vol. 32, pp. 918-919, 1910. 



Diseases of the Liver 97 

The amoeba leaves the bodies of the sick birds with the 
excrement and infects other birds by entering the digestive 
organs with the food and drink. It passes along the ali- 
mentary canal until it arrives at the two blind pouches or 
lateral extensions called the ceca (Fig. 7), where it begins its 
growth and produces the first signs of disease. Here it 
penetrates the lining membrane, increases rapidly in num- 
bers, and sets up an inflammatory process which leads to 
a great thickening of the intestinal wall and to the filling 
up and obstruction of the tube with an accumulation of 
yellowish white or grayish cheesy material that is deposited 
in concentric layers. 

The changes which are almost constantly found in the 
liver are explained by assuming that the microbes are 
carried by the blood from the diseased ceca to the liver, 
and are there deposited at difi^erent points, where they 
multiply and spread in all directions. In this way are 
formed the numerous centers of disease which appear on the 
surface of the liver as yellowish spots, but which when cut 
across are seen to be irregularly spherical in shape. The 
amoebae are liberated in large numbers both in the ceca and 
in the liver, are mixed with the intestinal contents, and are 
distributed with the droppings. 

There is some difference of opinion as to whether the 
amoeba is ever present within the egg of diseased turkeys, 
but the indications are that the infection is not carried in 
this way. It no doubt often exists on the outside of the 
shell, from contamination when the egg passes through the 
cloaca, and for this reason the eggs should be carefully 
cleaned before they are put under the sitting hen or into 
an incubator. 

An important recent conclusion is that common fowls 
harbor this parasite, although they rarely suffer sufficiently 
from its attacks to show marked symptoms of disease. They 



98 Diseases of Poultry 

scatter the contagion constantly, however, and young tur- 
keys, being more susceptible, contract a fatal form of the 
disease and are nearly all destroyed by it. For this reason 
it is very difficult to raise turkeys on or near grounds where 
there are common fowls. 

Diagnosis. — The symptoms of blackhead are most fre- 
quently seen in young turkeys, commonly called "poults," 
which are from 2 weeks to 3 or 4 months old. When young 
poults are infected experimentally by feeding them diseased 
livers they usually die in about two or three weeks, but when 
infected naturally they generally take in a smaller quantity 
of contagion and live a longer time. 

The affected birds at first appear less lively than usual, 
are not so active in searching for food, and when fed show a 
diminished appetite. Diarrhea is a nearly constant symp- 
tom, being due to the inflammation of the ceca. As the 
disease progresses there is more dullness and weakness, the 
wings and tail droop, and there is often the peculiar dis- 
coloration of the head which led to the disease being called 
"blackhead." There is increasing prostration and loss of 
weight ; the affected birds, instead of following their com- 
.panions, stand about in a listless manner, indisposed to 
move and paying little attention to what occurs about them. 

The greater part of the affected poults die within three 
or four months after hatching ; but with some the disease 
takes a more chronic form and does not cause death for a 
year or more. Nearly all die sooner or later from the effects 
of the disease, but in a small proportion of the cases there 
is healing and recovery. 

The finding after death, in young turkeys, of the diseased 
and thickened ceca, plugged with cheesy contents, together 
with the yellowish or yellowish-green spots in the more or 
less enlarged liver are sufficient indications to warrant a 
diagnosis of blackhead. 



I 



Diseases of the Liver 99 

Treatment. — The treatment of diseased birds has not 
given satisfactory results. The remedies most often used 
are sulphur 5 grains, sulphate of iron 1 grain ; or benzo- 
naphthol 1 grain, salicylate of bismuth 1 grain ; or sulphate 
of iron 1 grain, salicylate of soda 1 grain. These remedies 
should be preceded and followed by a dose of Epsom salts 
(10 to 35 grains), or of castor oil {h to 3 leaspoonfuls). 
Fifteen grains of catechu to the gallon of drinking water 
may also have a beneficial effect. It seems clear, however, 
that it does not pay to doctor the sick poults and that the 
only hope of success at present is in preventing their infection. 

The measures of prevention which have been suggested 
are (1) obtaining eggs from birds believed to be healthy; 
(2) wiping the eggs with a cloth wet with alcohol (80 to 90 
per cent) before they are placed in the incubator or under the 
hen for hatching, to remove any contagion that might be 
on the shell ; (3) hatching in an incubator, or at least remov- 
ing the eggs from under the hen a day or two before hatching 
would occur, wiping with alcohol, and finishing in an incu- 
bator, in order to avoid exposing the poults to the hen ; (4) 
placing the young poults on the ground at a distance from 
all other domesticated fowls and which has not recently 
been occupied by other fowls ; (5) excluding so far as pos- 
sible pigeons, other wild birds, and rats and mice from the 
houses and runs occupied by the turkeys ; (6) the frequent 
disinfection of the houses, feed troughs, drinking fountains, 
etc. ; (7) the immediate killing of diseased birds and the 
destruction of their bodies by fire. 

These radical measures are necessary, and in sections 
of the country which are not too intensely infected they will 
make it possible to carry on the turkey industry success- 
fully. However, it must be admitted that up to the present 
blackhead has proved to be one of the most difficult of all 
diseases to prevent or eradicate. 



100 Diseases of Poultry 

The destruction of the contagion, after it has been intro- 
duced into a pouhry yard, has also been found difficult 
or impossible. Some have proposed to dip up and burn the 
surface soil to a depth of several inches, which might be done 
with small yards but is impossible with large ones. In most 
cases the poultryman must be contented with the appli- 
cation of a layer of freshly burned lime that has been care- 
fully slaked to a fine, dry powder. After a few weeks this 
ground should be plowed and another layer of lime applied. 
The manure which has accumulated should be burned or 
mixed with lime and plowed into the ground of some distant 
fields. The wall and floors of the buildings should be cov- 
ered with a good limewash containing 6 ounces of carbolic 
acid to the gallon. The fences should receive a coat of 
limewash. The feeding troughs and drinking vessels should 
be put into a kettle of boiling water for half an hour. 
Troughs too large for this should be burned and replaced 
by new ones. After these measures are adopted, the longer 
the premises are left vacant the more likely is the contagion 
to be completely destroyed. The freezing and thawing of 
a winter and spring will be found of great assistance. In 
beginning with a new flock the precautions already men- 
tioned must be adopted to prevent the infection of the 
premises. 

Cercomoniasis 

This is frequently called "spotted liver." It, like many 
other liver diseases, is associated with intestinal trouble, 
especially severe diarrhea, that attacks poultry during the 
summer months. The disease is caused by a flagellate 
micro-organism known as Monocercomonas gallinarum. The 
post-mortem appearance of the liver in this disease shows 
usually slightly depressed yellowish necrotic areas or spots. 



Diseases of the Liver 101 

This fact usually distinguishes this disease from tuber- 
culosis where there are prominent rounded cheesy nodules. 
In pigeons, however, this cercomonad is said to cause rounded 
prominent nodules about the size of a pea. 

This same organism (Monocercomonas gaUinarum) is also 
said to be responsible for other diseases. The most impor- 
tant of these is one form of roup. Canker in squabs and 
intestinal diarrhea in poultry are other diseases attributed 
to this parasite. 

This disease can be held in check, it is said, by keeping 
the poultry plant well cleaned and disinfected and by giving 
the birds an occasional purgative, e.g., Epsom salts. 

In aspergillosis, the liver often presents the appearance of 
being "studded all over with minute, whitish or yellowish 
spots." This disease is discussed in Chapter XI. 

Gout 

In cases of visceral gout the liver and adjoining organs are 
covered with a fine chalky sediment. This substance con- 
sists of crystals of urate of soda. (See Chapter XIV for 
detailed description.) 

Sarcomatosis and Carcinomatosis 

In some cases the liver is affected with tumors or cancers. 
These are usually found in connection with similar develop- 
ments on the ovaries (see Chapter XX). 



CHAPTER VIII 

Fowl Cholera, Fowl Typhoid and Fowl Plague 

Cholera 

Fowl cholera is a virulent, usually fatal and highly in- 
fectious disease. It is entirely distinct from the ordinary 
forms of enteritis with which it is often confused by poultry- 
men. Fowl typhoid and infectious leukaemia are also often 
mistaken for cholera. Genuine fowl cholera is rather rare in 
this country but is much more common in Europe. Ac- 
cording to some investigators it is now on the increase in this 
country. This disease was first reported in this country 
about 1880 by Salmon (Kept. U. S. Comm. of Agric). Owing 
to the lack of proper bacteriological methods at that time 
Salmon was not able with certainty to identify this disease 
with the European cholera. From certain experimental 
work he concluded that some of the symptoms exhibited by 
the disease in this country were different from those de- 
scribed by European writers. About 1894 Moore ^ obtained 
material from several outbreaks of supposed cholera but 
found this disease to differ in some important respects from 
the European trouble. Later Curtice - described a disease 
similar to that of Moore's under the name of fowl typhoid. 

1 Moore, V. A., "A Study of a Bacillus Obtained from Three 
Outbreaks of Fowl Cholera." U. S. Dept. of Agrie. Bur. Auim. 
Ind., Bui. No. 8. 

- Curtice, R., "Fowl Typhoid." Rhode Island Agr. Expt. Stat. 
Bui. No. 87. 

102 



Fowl Cholera, Fowl Tiiphoid and Fowl Plaque lOo 

What appears to be the genuine European fowl cholera has 
been reported several times within the last few years. 

Etiology. — Fowl cholera is caused by a minute bacterium 




Fig. 10. — Stained preparation of the heart blood of a pigeon infected with 
fowl cholera. The small objects between the blood corpuscles, each 
showing two dots of color, are the cholera bacteria. (After KoUe and 
Hetsch.) 

known as Bacillus avisepticus (B. bipolaris septicus). This 
is a small oval organism which when stained and placed under 
the microscope shows a dot of color at each end while the 
middle part remains entirely unstained (Fig. 10). 



104 Diseases of Poultry 

The organism was first recognized about 1878. In 1880 
Pasteur ^ used it in his epoch making work on the production 
of immunity with attenuated or non-virulent cultures. This 
organism belongs in the same group as the hog-cholera 
bacillus (B. suisepticus), rabbit septicaemia and many other 
destructive bacteria. 

In the diseased bird the organism can be found in the blood 
and in nearly all the organs. When inoculated into the 
breast of a pigeon or fowl it causes a characteristic hemor- 
rhagic swelling. 

This organism is pathogenic for all kinds of poultry and 
domestic birds and for nearly all kinds of wild birds. It is 
also very pathogenic for rabbits and many other animals. 
For larger animals, such as cattle, horses, sheep, and swine, it 
will cause severe or even fatal disease if injected intrave- 
nously. When fed to these animals it does not produce a 
diseased condition. Dogs and cats can eat great quantities of 
meat from birds dead from this desease without experiencing 
any inconvenience. For man this organism appeared to be 
pathogenic to some extent. In any case birds infected with 
cholera should not be used for food. 

This organism is easily destroyed by drying, by the or- 
dinary disinfectants, by a temperature of 132° F. for fifteen 
minutes, and by direct sunlight. 

Diagnosis. - — The earliest indication of the disease is a 
yellow coloration of the urates, or that part of the excrement 
which is excreted by the kidneys. This in health is a pure 
white, though it is frequently tinted with yellow as a result 
of other disorders than cholera. While therefore this yel- 
lowish coloration of the urates is not an absolutely certain 
proof of cholera, it is a valuable indication when the disease 
has appeared in a flock and an effort should be made to check 

^ Pastexir, L., "Sur le cholera des poules et I'attenuation du 
virus du cholera des poules." Comptes Rendus, 1880. 



Fowl Cholera , Fowl Typhoid and Fold Plague 105 

its course by isolating the sick birds as soon as possible. In 
regard to the yellow or green excreta Hadley ^ says : " This 
is a very characteristic symptom. The excrement of normal 
fowls is not yellow ; and when it is green it is a dark green, 
approaching black. In cholera both yellow and green are 
bright ; the green is often an emerald green. These different 
colors may occur either together or separately and both are 
usually accompanied by diarrhea and thick mucus. In case 
it is known that cholera is in the neighborhood, it is well for 
a poultryman to examine, from day to day, the character of 
the droppings on the dropping board." 

In other cases the first symptom is diarrhea in which the 
excrement is passed in large quantities, and consists almost 
entirely of urates mixed with colorless mucus. Generally 
the diarrhea is a prominent symptom. The excrement is 
voided frequently, and consists largely of urates suspended in 
a thin, transparent, sometimes frothy mucus. The urates 
have a deep yellow color, which in the later stages of the 
disease may change to a greenish cast. 

Soon after these first symptoms appear the bird separates 
itself from the flock, the feathers are roughened or stand on 
end, the wings droop, the head is drawn down towards the 
body and the general outline of the bird becomes spherical 
or ball shaped. At this period there is great weakness, the 
affected bird becomes drowsy and may sink into a deep sleep 
which lasts during the last day or two of its life and from 
which it is almost impossible to arouse it. The crop is 
nearly always distended with food and apparently paralyzed. 
There is in most cases intense thirst. If the birds are aroused 
and caused to walk there is at first an abundant discharge of 
excrement followed at short intervals by scanty evacuations. 

The disease may be acute, in which case the bird dies in 

1 Hadley, P. B., "Fowl Cholei-a and Methods of Combating It." 
Rhode Island Agr. Expt. Stat. Bui. 144, pp. 309-337, 1910, 



106 Diseases of Poultry 

from a few hours to a day or two. Or it may be subacute, in 
which case the bird hngers for several days. Likewise 
within the flock the birds may die rapidly until the majority 
of the flock are gone within a few days or they may die a few 
at a time throughout a period of several weeks. The period 
of incubation, i.e., from the time of exposure until the first 
symptoms, varies from 1 to 2 days in geese and from 4 to 
9 days in chickens.^ Salmon states that the incubation 
period may be as much as 20 days. 

Examination of the dead birds shows inflammation of 
the digestive organs, kidneys, and mesenteries in nearly all 
cases. Accordmg to Ward ' " punctiform hemorrhages are 
found upon the heart with almost absolute uniformity. 
The liver is very frequently marked with punctiform 
whitish areas." Sections show that the areas of necrotic 
tissue are present throughtout the liver tissue. The blood 
vessels of the liver are congested. According to Ward the 
next most striking lesions are found in the reddened and 
bleeding mucosa of the first and second folds of the small in- 
testine (next to the gizzard). These reddened areas can even 
be seen from the outside of the intestine. The intestinal con- 
tents are either a cream colored pasty mass or may be brown- 
ish or even green in color. " Lesions are very rarely observed 
in other portions of the intestine. The ureters are noticeable 
in practically all cases by reason of the yellow-colored urates 
that they contain. The nasal cavity, pharynx and oral 
cavity frequently contain a viscous mucous fluid, probably 
regurgitated from the crop." 

Mode of Transmission. — ^The manner in wiiich this disease 
gains admission to an apparently healthy flock is often a puz- 

1 Ostertag, R., und Ackermann, P., "Zeitschr. Infektkr. u. Hyg. 
Haustr." Bd. 1, pp. 431-441, 1906. 

2 Ward, A. R., "Fowl Cholera." Cal. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 156, 
pp. 3-20, 1904. 



Foivl Cholera, Fowl Typhoid and Fowl Plague 107 

zling question. Thus while many epidemics owe their origin 
to the importation of infected birds, birds returning from 
poultry shows, or to the presence of infected wild birds, some 
epidemics appear to arise spontaneously. Recently it has 
been found that the causative organism is occasionally 
present in the intestines of an apparently healthy bird. 
These spontaneous epidemics are probably to be explainefl as 
due to the increase in virulence of such organisms. After 
passage through two or three hens this virulence is still 
further increased so that an epidemic is started. Later on 
this same strain may decrease in virulence but may remain 
in the flock only to break out again a year or two later. 

Within the flock the infection is generally transferred 
through the food or drinking water contaminated with the 
excrement of sick birds. It is also possible for birds to be 
infected through wounds of the skin or by inhalation of the 
germs in the form of dust suspended in the air. In other 
cases the dissemination of the disease is undoubtedly due to 
the fowls eating the dead bodies of infected birds. 

Treatm.euf. — At the present time there is no certain cure 
known for fowl cholera after the bird has been infected. 
While some birds may recover of their own accord it is prob- 
able that such birds are a source of danger to the flock for 
some time afterwards. Miiller ^ states that infected fowls 
continue giving off the bacteria in the urates three weeks 
after infection, and that the organs contained virulent mate- 
rial after a period of six months. 

Under ordinary circumstances, if it is known that fowl 
cholera is on the premises, every bird showing marked symp- 
toms of this disease should be killed at once. The birds 
should be killed in such a manner that their blood will not 
be spilled near the houses or runs. Every drop of blood from 

1 Miiller, J., "Monatsh. Prakt. Tierheilk." Bd. 21, pp. 385-413, 
1910. 



108 Diseases of Poultry 

an infected fowl contains thousands of these bacteria and 
may serve to infect other birds. The bodies of the birds 
should be burned, or if this is not possible they should be 
buried deeply so that dogs and other animals will not dig 
them up. 

A pest house should be established as soon as it is known 
that the disease is present. This should be located at some 
distance from the regular houses. E^'ery bird showing the 
slightest symptoms of the disease should be removed to this 
house at once. All the litter and droppings from the regular 
houses and runs should be scraped up and burned and every- 
thing about the place thoroughly disinfected. Spray the 
houses with a good disinfectant. Do not use any litter in 
the houses unless a light coat of sawdust and this should be 
replaced by fresh every day. The runs and yards should be 
thoroughly disinfected and should be plowed often. 

If these measures are carried out with conscientious at- 
tention to details it is a relatively simple matter to eradicate 
this disease. However, the disinfection must be kept up for 
some months after the birds have ceased to die. Otherwise 
the infection may return. 

In connection with his work on an outbreak of fowl cholera 
in California, Ward points out the following important con- 
clusion : " Cholera and other infectious diseases may exist 
in a fowl in a sort of inactive chronic condition and there is no 
doubt concerning the agency of such a case in spreading the 
disease. Thus, fowls not suspected of being diseased may 
have the disease smoldering among them. The fact that 
occasionally a single fowl dies of cholera means that a severe 
loss may occur at any time." 

The practical recommendation for an outbreak of fowl 
cholera then is to kill and destroy all sick birds, confine all 
well birds to small runs. Disinfect these runs and the houses 
dailv. After the outbreak is over and the birds have ceased 



I 



Fowl Cholera, Fowl Typhoid and Fowl Plague 109 

(lying it is best to market all flocks in which the cholera 
appeared. This latter precaution will often prevent a second 
outbreak some months later. 

Methods of prevention are always the most satisfactory. 
The careful poultryman will guard his flock against all in- 
fectious diseases by methods of quarantine, disinfection and 
general cleanliness. At the same time the birds should be 
fed to keep them in the best of health. On these points read 
Chapter II. 

A large amount of work has been done upon remedies and 
preventives for this disease. Recently Hadley ^ has rec- 
ommended the subcutaneous injections of 5 per cent car- 
bolic acid as a treatment for individual birds. This author 
says: "At the Rhode Island Station attempts have been 
made to prevent the development in fowls of cholera artifi- 
cially produced by inoculation with the fowl cholera or- 
ganism. The protective inoculations have involved sub- 
cutaneous inoculations with a 5 per cent solution of carbolic 
acid in amounts of from 2 to 4 c.c. daily. 

"The results thus far secured show that the inoculations 
as given protected artificially infected birds, and did no harm 
to birds that were in normal health. They therefore suggest 
that subcutaneous inoculations with carbolic acid have a 
protective and perhaps a therapeutic value in fowl chol- 
era." 

Much work has also been done, especially in Europe, upon 
methods of protective inoculation against this disease. The 
best success has been obtained by the use of immune sera. 
Such a serum is prepared by immunizing a large animal, 
horse or cow, by repeated injections of this organism. The 
serum from this animal is then collected and used to inoculate 
healthy birds. Such an immune serum gives a passive im- 

^ Hadley, P. B., "Fowl Cholera and Methods for Combating It." 
Rhode Island Agr. Expt. Stat. Bui. 144, pp. 309-337, 1910. 



110 Diseases of Poultry 

miinity to the bird which will last about IS days ^ after each 
injection. The fact that such immunity is not permanent 
renders it of little value in treating an infected flock. 
Lisoff ^ reports the use of such a serum in a large number of 
epizootics (3876 birds) and states that the disease can 
easily be held in check. As a curative agent he says the 
figures show a reduction in mortality from 90 to 22 per cent 
where the serum was used. 

Such protective serum is largely used in Denmark and 
other countries for treating geese and other birds which are 
being shipped into the country. 

Other methods of producing immunity against this disease 
have also been tried. These involve the injection of dead 
cultures or of living avirulent cultures or of the sterilized 
exudate obtained by injecting cultures into the pleural cavi- 
ties of other animals. In the main these methods have not 
proven A-ery successful in a practical way. For instance the 
majority of avirulent cultures will not produce immunity 
against all virulent strains. This whole question is now 
l)eing studied by the Rhode Island Experiment Station.^ 

1 Kitt, T., "Monatsh. Prakt. Tierheilk." Bd. IG, pp. 1-19, 1904. 

2 Lisoff, P. W., ["Anti -fowl-cholera Serum and Its Practical 
Signifieauee"]. (Russian) Vet. Nauk (St. Petersburg), Bd. 40, 
pp. 804-818, 1910. 

^ For example see : 

Hadley, P. B., and Amison, E. E., "A Histological Study of 
Eleven Pathogenic Organisms from Cholera-like Diseases in Domes- 
tic Fowls." Rhode Island Agr. Expt. Stat. Bui. 146, pp. 43-102, 
1911. 

Hadley, P. B., "The Role of Homologous Cultures of Slight 
Virulence in the Production of Active Immunity in Rabbits." 
Rhode Island Expt. Stat. Bui. 150, pp. 81-161, 1912. 

"The Reciprocal Relations of Virulent and Avirulent Cul- 
tures in Active Immunization." Rhode Island Expt. Stat. Bui. 
159, pp. 383-403, 1914. 



Fowl Cholera, Fowl T uphold and Fowl Plague 111 

Fowl Typhoid 

In 1895 Moore ^ described a disease of fowls caused by an 
organism which he named Bacterium sanguinarium. He 
called the disease infectious leukaemia owing to the fact 
that it is accompanied by a marked increase in the number 
of white blood corpuscles. This disease is discussed in detail 
in Chapter XII. 

At the time of his original description of this disease Moore 
pointed out that it was frequently mistaken for fowl cholera, 
but he called attention to a nimiber of specific differences 
(see p. 188). He also says that the organism causing this 
disease closely resembles in its physiological properties Bacil- 
lus typhosis, the cause of himian typhoid. In more recent 
literature this disease has frequently been called fowl ty- 
phoid. Smith and Ten Broeck ^ have pointed out that this 
organism has many diagnostic features in common with the 
human typhoid bacillus. Even in its agglutination reactions 
it closely resembles the typhoid organism. The fowl or- 
ganism differs from the human, however, in being non-motile. 

In spite of the marked resemblance the two organisms are 
apparently distinct. Mitchell and Bloomer ^ state that the 
chicken is highly resistant to the human typhoid organism. 
In the experiments reported the chickens failed either to 
contract the disease or to act as a carrier. The experiments 
involved both feeding the organism and injecting it intrave- 

1 Moore V. A., "Infectious Leukaemia in Fowls — a Bacterial 
Disease Frequently Mistaken for Fowl Cholera." U. S. Dept. 
of Agr. Bur. of An. Ind. Repts., 1895 and 1896, pp. 185-205. 

2 Smith, T., and Ten Broeck, C, "Agglutination Affinities of a 
Pathogenic Bacillus from Fowls (fowl typhoid) Bacterium sanguina- 
rium Moore) with the Typhoid Bacillus of Man." Jour, of Medi- 
cal Research, Vol. 31, pp. .503-521, 1915. 

» Mitchell, O. W. H., and Bloomer, G. T., "Experimental Study 
of the Chicken as a Possible Typhoid Carrier." Jour, of Medical 
Research, Vol. 31, pp. 247-250, 1914. 



112 Diseases of Poultry 

nously. These experiments are not extensive enough to prove 
absolutely that chickens cannot become typhoid carriers. 

Pfeiler and Rehse ^ have shown that while the fowl typhoid 
organism (which they renamed B. typhi gallinarum alcali- 
faciens) is extremely virulent for chickens, it does not attack 
ducks, geese or pigeons. 

In another recent paper Smith and Ten Broeck ^ have 
shown that the fowl cholera organism produces a toxin that 
is very poisonous to rabbits. They suggest that possibly 
this same organism may play a part in the food or so-called 
ptomaine poisoning in man. 

In still another paper Smith and Ten Broeck ^ have shown 
that the fowl typhoid organism shows many points of re- 
semblance to Bacillus pullorum, the cause of white diarrhea 
in young chicks (cf. p. 295). It is only by certain fermenta- 
tion tests that the two can be distinguished. 

A further discussion of this disease together with recom- 
mendations for prevention are given under infectious leu- 
kaemia on pages 186-189. 

Foui Plague 

This disease is to be sharply separated from fowl cholera 
with which it is often confused. So far as the writers are 
aware this disease has never appeared in the United States. 
It is by no means uncommon in Europe. In spite of the fact 

1 Pfeiler, W., and Rehse, A., "Bacillus typhi gallinarum alcali- 
faciens." Mitt. Kaiser Wilhelms Inst. f. Landwirtschaft, Brom- 
berg, Bd. 5, pp. 306-321, 1913. 

2 Smith, T., and Ten Broeck, C, "The Pathogenic Action of the 
Fowl Typhoid Bacillus with Special Reference to Certain Toxins." 
Jour, of Medical Research, Vol. 31, pp. .523-546, 191.5. 

^ Smith, T.,and Ten Broeck, C, "A Note on the Relation between 
B. pullorum (Rettger) and the Fowl Typhoid Bacillus (Moore)." 
Jour, of Medical Research, Vol. 31, pp. 547-555, 1915. 



Fowl Cholera, Fowl Typhoid and Fowl Plague 113 

that considerable work lias been done upon fowl plague, com- 
paratively little is known about it. The following notes are 
gathered from such literature as is at hand. 

Etiology. — No definite organism has ever been isolated in 
connection with this disease. Depperich ^ stated (1907) that 
all the then available evidence indicated that it is caused by 
an ultra-microscopic, filterable virus. Russ ^ states that the 
blood from cases of this disease is extremely virulent, being 
fatal when given in such extreme dilution as 1 to 1,000,000,000. 
The virus of this disease appears to be in some way attached 
to or included in the red blood corpuscles. By centrifuging 
out these corpuscles it is possible to remove a large portion 
of the virus from the blood. Landsterner ^ performed cer- 
tain experiments which indicated that the causative organism 
may be a protozoon associated with the blood corpuscles. 
In this respect the causative factor in the disease appears to 
show some resemblance to the filterable virus of hog-cholera, 
according to recent work.^ 

Diagnosis. — Fowl plague is know^n to affect chickens, tur- 
keys, guinea-fowl, geese, pheasants, and many wild birds. 
The lesions of the disease resemble those produced by phos- 
phorous poisoning.^ The surface of the heart may be covered 
with small blood clots (ecchymoses) . It can be distinguished 
from fowl cholera by the presence of hemorrhages under the 
epicardium and an exudate in the pericardial cavity. 



1 Depperich, C. H., Fortsch. Vet. Hyg. Bd. 4, pp. 217-250, 
1907. 

2 Russ, V. K., Arch. Hyg. Bd. 59, pp. 286-312, 1906. 

' Landsterner, K., Centralb. f. Bakt., etc., Abt. 1, Bd. 38, pp. 
540-542, 1906. 

* For example : 

King, W. E., and Hoffman, G. L., "Studies on Hog Cholera — 
Spirochoeta suis, Its Significance as a Pathogenic Organism." 
Jour. Infec. Dis., Vol. 13, pp. 463-498, 1913. 

^ Freese, Deut. Tierarztl. Wchnschr. Bd. 16, pp. 173-177, 1908. 



114 Di.seas'cs of Puultry 

Marchoux ^ claims to have shown that the virus is not 
transmitted through the feces but that it is probably trans- 
mitted by some mite or tick. Experiments by others have 
failed to prove definitely that it is transmitted by such 
parasites. 

Several investigators have called attention to an apparent 
relationship between this disease and rabies. Rosenthal 
states that subdural inoculation of fowls with the virus of 
this disease produces death with violent symptoms resem- 
bling rabies. Schiffmann ^ states that in the cerebrum of 
artificially inoculated geese certain corpuscles are found 
which in some respects resemble the Negri bodies of rabies. 
The two, however, are not identical. 

Control. — The methods for the control of this disease must 
be similar to those of cholera. Sick birds must be isolated or 
killed and great care taken that the blood of infected birds is 
not spilled in the houses or yards. 

1 Marchoux, E., Compt. Rend us Soc. Biol. T. 08, pp. 346-347, 
1910. 

2 Schiffmann, J., Centbl. f. Bald., etc. Abt. 1, Bd. 45, pp. 393- 
403, 1907. 



CHAPTER IX 
Tuberculosis 

Tuberculosis in fowls lias long been a serious pest in 
Euorpe. Zurn in his " Krankheiten des Hausgefliigels," 
published in 1882, devotes several pages to the description 
of this disease as it occurred in Germany. Its appearance in 
this country, however, seems to have been much more recent. 

Salmon, whose book was published about 1888, says that 
the disease " is by no means rare in the United States if the 
statements of our professional men are to be accepted." 
However, at that time very little had been done in the way of 
bacteriological diagnosis and no doubt many of the early 
reports were unreliable. 

The disease was first reported on the basis of bacterio- 
logical examination in 1900 by Pernot.^ In 1903 Moore 
and Ward " reported investigations on avian tuberculosis in 
California. They found "a number of flocks in which the 
mortality from the disease was very high." Fowl tuber- 
culosis was reported from western and central Canada in 
1904 by Dr. C. H. Higgins.^ In 1906 it was reported from 
New York and in 1907 from southern Michigan. The 

^ Pernot, "Investigation of Disease of Poultry." Oregon Agi\ 
Expt. Stat. Bui. 64, 1900. 

2 Moore, V. A., and Ward, A., "Avian Tuberculosis." Proc. 
Am. Vet. Med. Assoc, St. Paul, 1903. 

' Higgins, C. H., "Report of Veterinary Director General for 
1905." Dept. of Agr., Canada, Ottawa, 1906. 

115 



116 Diseases of Poultry 

disease has been reported in many other places within the 
last few years. It thus seems certain that the disease is 
widespread throughout the United States and Canada and 
in the future must be reckoned with by American poultry- 
men. 

Tuberculosis may exist extensively among fowls, especially 
in large flocks, and yet not kill enough birds to attract 
attention to it. Reports show that farmers often lose one or 
two birds a year from what appears to be tuberculosis. In 
many places the loss seems to be gradually increasing. The 
existence of the disease in the flock fails to attract the atten- 
tion of the owner because the losses are so evenly distributed 
throughout the year. In other cases the disease appears to 
be more virulent and to cause very serious losses. Moore 
and Ward report a flock of 1400 birds from which 250 had 
died during the first year. Another man lost 300 birds out 
of a flock of 1460. Microscopic examination proved that 
these were dying of tuberculosis. 

Tuberculosis is confined chiefly to adult or nearly adult 
fowls. Only very rarely, if ever, is it found in growing chicks. 
Further it is much more common in fowls than in other kinds 
of poultry. Two cases in wild geese were reported at the 
Ontario Agricultural College. Avian tuberculosis is said 
to be found in turkeys, pheasants, and especially in pigeons. 
Cage birds are particularly susceptible to this disease. 

Etiology. — Tuberculosis is caused by a minute germ, 
the Bacillus tuberculosis of birds. These bacteria gain 
entrance to certain portions of the body and there multiply 
in vast numbers, causing the formation of small nodules or 
tubercles. The disease is highly contagious and is spread 
through the flock by the contact of healthy birds with the 
diseased ones, or with their discharges. 

The relation of avian tuberculosis to that of man and other 
animals has attracted a great deal of attention. It is a 



Tuberculosis 



117 



subject of very great importance to the poultryman, not 
only on account of his flock but also on account of its relation 
to the health of himself and his family. The bacillus asso- 
ciated with avian tuberculosis presents certain morphological 




Fig. 11. — Section of the lung of a hen showing tubercle bacilli. (After 
Himmelberger.) 

and physiological characteristics which are different from the 
organism associated with this disease in man. Likewise the 
bacillus of human tuberculosis is differentiated in certain 
marked features from that found in cattle. On the whole 



118 Diseases uf Poultry 

the difference between the avian and the other two types is 
much greater than that between the human and the bovine. 

It has frequently been held that the avian bacillus is a 
distinct species. The chief reason for this is that it often 
fails to produce disease when inoculated into mammals 
and because the mammalian type will not always infect birds. 
At the present time the view is rather generally accepted 
that the avian, human and bovine types simply represent 
three varieties or strains of the same species. A large amount 
of work has been done upon this subject, and while under 
ordinary conditions the avian bacillus does not infect mam- 
mals, under certain conditions it will do so. 

Bang,^ who has done a great amount of work upon this 
subject, found that mammalian bacilli by passage through 
fowls can be so changed as to behave like the avian type, and 
further that bovine bacilli after having lost their virulence 
for guinea pigs through repeated passage through fowls are 
able to regain the original virulence by passage through 
mammals. Of eighteen different strains of mammalian 
tubercle bacilli used Bang found that twelve could be made 
virulent for fowls. He states, however, that in his experi- 
ence mammalian bacilli were never found in spontaneous 
avian tuberculosis. 

The avian tubercle bacilli are very virulent to most birds 
and especially to domesticated species. Artificial infection 
succeeds best by direct inoculation into a vein, while in- 
traperitoneal and subcutaneous injections are apt to yield 
less certain results. By feeding either cultures or fresh 
material from tuberculous birds the disease is readily trans- 



1 Bang, Oluf, "Die Tuberculose der Gefliigels in ihren Bezie- 
hungen zur Tuberculose der Saugethieren." Trans. IX Intern., Vet. 
Cong., Vol. 1, 1909. 

" Gefliigeltubereulose und Saugetiertuberculose." Centralb. 

f. Bakt. Paras, u. Infekt., Bd. XLVI, 1908. 



Tuberculosis 119 

mitted. The fresh material has usually proven to be the 
most virulent. Van Es and Schalk ' report that of 12 Eng- 
lish sparrows each fed one meal of chopped tuberculous 
chicken liver all died in from 73 to 202 days with generalized 
tuberculosis. It is quite probable that the English sparrow 
often serves to infect domestic fowls. 

Koch and Rabinowitsch ' state that while fowds are easily 
infected wdth avian tuberculosis by feeding, it is very difficult 
to infect them with the mammalian strains in the same way. 
On the other hand, some birds, especially cage birds, are 
very readily infected in various ways. Parrots, in particular, 
are susceptible not only to avian tuberculosis, but also to 
mammalian and human tuberculosis. Also canary birds, 
sparrows, and various birds of prey were proven to be sus- 
ceptible to both avian and mammalian tuberculosis. In these 
respects such birds differ materially from the domestic fowls. 

On the other hand their later researches have made it 
apparent that a large number of mammals are susceptible to 
avian tuberculosis. These include not only the small 
laboratory animals as rabbits, mice and guinea pigs, but also 
cattle, hogs, horses, goats, and donkeys. Also avian tubercle 
bacilli have been found in cases of human tuberculosis. 

Himmelberger ^ reports experiments in which it was 
possible to infect a calf by feeding it the macerated organs of 
a tuberculous hen. This result is of considerable interest in 
view of the question of the relation of the avian tubercle 
bacillus to the causative factor in Johne's disease of cattle. 
Johne's disease presents many of the symptoms of tuber- 

1 Van Es, L., and Sehalk, A. F., "Avian Tuberculosis." North 
Dakota Agr. Expt. Stat. Bui. 108, pp. 1-94, 1914. 

^ Koch, R., and Kabinowitsch, L., "Die Tuberculose der Vogel 
und ihre Beziehungen an Saugetiertubereulose." Arbeiten a. d. 
Kaiserl. Gesundheitsamte, 1904. 

•' Himmelberger, L. R., Centralb. f. Bakt. etc. Abt. 1, Bd. 73, 
pp. 1-11, 1914. 



120 Diseases of Poultry 

culosis in cattle, yet usually such cattle do not react to the 
ordinary tuberculin test. However, it has been found that in 
a considerable number of cases of this disease the animals 
will react if tested with a tuberculin made from the avian 
bacillus. The majority of experimenters have reported 
negative results in their attempts to infect cattle with the 
avian organism. The question is one which must await 
further evidence before definite conclusions can be drawn. 

On the basis of such experiments and observation it 
appears that the difference between avian and mammalian 
tuberculosis has developed because the bacilli have grown 
for a long time under different conditions. They are not so 
different, however, but that each may grow in the environ- 
ment best suited to the other. 

It thus appears that while fowls are not very likely to contract 
tuberculosis from domestic animals or from man, yet fowls that 
have the diseases are a serious menace to the other animals on 
the farm as well as to the poultryman a7id his family. (Cf. 
further on this point p. 128 below.) 

Diagnosis. — Tuberculosis in mankind is so serious a 
disease chiefly because it is so difficult to recognize it in its 
earliest stages. The same is true with the disease in fowls. 
There are positively no external symptoms by which the 
disease can be recognized in fowls before the advanced stages. 
Some of the outward symptoms that may serve to arouse 
suspicion are : steadily advancing emaciation ; anaemia, 
shown by pallor of comb, wattles and the skin about the 
head ; general weakness ; lameness ; ruffling of the feathers, 
and in many cases diarrhea. These combined with a bright 
eye and a ravenous appetite are some of the symptoms most 
frequently found. None of them is specific, however, and 
final diagnosis must be based on other findings. Emaciation 
is one of the best symptoms and in the last stages of the dis- 
ease becomes very marked. Pernot cites the case of a Plym- 



Tuberculosis 



121 



outh Rock hen weigh- 
ing 4 pounds that was 
reduced to 22 ounces. 
The emaciation is very 
marked in the muscles 
covering the breast- 
bone. 

Lameness is another 
symptom often shown 
in the later stages of 
the disease. This is 
caused by tuberculosis 
of the joints, as has 
been proven in many 
cases. Such cases are 
often called "rheuma- 
tism" by poultrymen. 
Tuberculosis may also 
form tumors or ulcers 
or various outgrowths 
on the head and limbs 
of birds. Such forms 
of the disease are com- 
paratively rare in poul- 
try, however. Parrots 
are particularly af- 
fected with these ex- 
ternal tubercles. 

None of these symp- 
toms, however, is more 
than an indication of 
the possible presence 
of the disease. 

Post-mortem find- 




122 Diseases of Poultry 

e certain evidence of 
disease. The tubercle is the unit of all tuberculous lesions. 



ings give much more certain evidence of the existence of this 




Fiu. 13. — Liver of fowl afYccted with tuberculosis. (Aftei' Ward.) 

The tubercles in avian tuberculosis are not essentially differ 
ent from those found in mammalian forms of the disease 
These tubercles appear as small 
raised nodules filled with a 
cheesy substance. 

In birds the organs most af- 
fected are the liver, spleen and 
intestinal tract. In some in- 
stances nearly every organ, 
including kidneys, ovaries, 
lungs, bones, muscles and skin, 
is affected. Statistics collected 
show that in from 90 to 99 
per cent of cases the liver shows tubercular lesions (Fig. 
13). In from 85 to 90 per cent the spleen is affected 




Fig. 14. — Spleen from tubercu- 
lous fowl cut through the mid- 
dle. (After Koch and Rabino- 
witsch.) 



Tuberculosis 



123 




124 



Diseases of Poidtri/ 




Fig. l(j. — Intestine and incsentories of a fowl affected with tuberculosis. 
(After Ward.) 



(Fig. 14) and in from 50 to 60 per cent of the cases tubercles 

are found in the intestines and mesenteries (Figs. 15 and 16). 

Thus the Hver is affected in nearly every case. However, 



Tuberculosis 125 

as has been pointed out many times in these pages, a spotted 
condition of the Hver is no sure sign of tuberculosis. Most of 
the other hver diseases of fowls cause a simple blotching of 
the tissue in which the center of each spot is usually depressed 
or at least only slightly raised (cf. Fig. 9, p. 95). In 
tuberculosis the liver is covered with numerous raised nodules 
varying greatly in number and size as shown in Fig. 13. 
A section of the liver shows these nodules or tubercles dis- 
tributed throughout the tissue. 

Still more conclusive evidence is found if the spleen is 
covered with these same kind of nodules. The spleen in 
health is a small rounded purplish organ about ^ inch in 
diameter. It lies just above the liver in the region of the 
gall bladder. (Cf. Fig. 7). In cases of tuberculosis it is 
very frequently greatly enlarged and is studded throughout 
with the yellowish-white tubercles as shown in Fig. 14. 

The lungs are rarely affected and then usually by the infec- 
tion spreading from the liver on to the adjoining lung tissue. 
All this agrees with the fact previously stated that fowls are 
most easily infected through the digestive tract. 

If the post-mortem findings agree in essentials with those 
given in the preceding paragraphs we may be practically 
certain that we are dealing w^th tuberculosis. It should not 
be forgotten, however, that the pathologist would not be 
willing to pronounce the disease tuberculosis until he had 
taken a small particle of the cheesy material and after stain- 
ing this in a particular way had demonstrated by microscop- 
ical examination that the tubercule bacilli were present. 

Some recent experiments hold out the hope that means 
wdll be found for the accurate diagnosis of this disease by 
means of some of the biological and serological tests. Van 
Es ^ and Van Es and Schalk ^ have carried out careful experi- 

1 Van Es, L., Zeitschr. f. Infektionskrank. u. Hyg. Haust. Bd. 
14, pp. 271-296, 1913. 2 Loc. cit. 



126 



Diseases of Poult rij 




ments with tuberculin prepared from the avian bacilli. 

These authors injected this tuberculin within the layers of 

the skin (intracutaneous) in the comb and 

T wattles. The results indicate that this 
method is reasonably satisfactory. Sum- 
marizing the results of their tests on GOl 
birds, these authors found that 98 per cent 
of the birds showing tuberculous lesions 
reacted to the test. Only 8 per cent of the 
non-reacting birds showed lesions. Numer- 
ous previous investigators had obtained 
negative results with the subcutaneous, 
ophthalmic and cutaneous method of ap- 
plication. It appears that for birds the 
intracutaneous method is the only one to 
be considered of value. 

Technique of making the injection is very 
important according to Van Es and Schalk. 
Care must be taken that the injection is 
neither too deep nor too superficial. A small 
caliber syringe with a very fine needle (No. 
26 or 27) is used. 

Owing to the denseness of the tissues, 
especially the comb, it is often difficult to 
inject even a small quantity, and consider- 
able pressure is required to force the tu- 
berculin into the tissues. The amount 
Fig. 17. — Syringe injected into each bird was not carefully 
berculTn tes^t for measured but varied between gV and 2V of a 
chickens. (Af- cubic Centimeter of a 50 per cent avian tuber- 
Schlk") ^' ""^^ <^"li"- This tuberculin was prepared in the 

usual way. 
Owing to its looser texture the wattle proved to be the 
best place for the injection. The results of the tests were 




Tiihernilosis 



127 



recorded 24, 48 and 72 hours after the injection. A positive 
reaction is inchcated in a typical case by a large swelling 





Ml 




^^^ ■*r*'*^:^^-'*^m^^'^-?--^>^^^^M 




^^^MPHMBj 


4^^JHP ^^^^^^^1 


i 




"^^- ^-^^B 


i 
1 A 




^^aT 


t^Stf^ 


c::.,^^^ ^^^ 







Fig. 18. — Head of chicken showing po.sitive tuljcrculin reaction of comb 
and right wattle. (,\fter Van Es and Schalk.) 

about the point of injection. In the wattle this organ often 
becomes two to three times its original thickness. 

Agglutination and complement fixation tests have also 
been used to diagnose this disease.^ The tests so far re- 

1 Himmelberger, L. G., loc. cit. 



128 Diseases of Poultry 

ported, while encouraging, are too few to allow of definite 
conclusions. 

Methods of Contagion. — The spread of tuberculosis from 
fowl to fowl takes place only when the living bacteria are 
transferred from the diseased to the healthy birds. From 
the fact that tuberculosis lesions are most commonly found in 
the internal organs of the digestive system we may conclude 
that the bacteria usually enter the body along with the food. 
Examination of the tubercles situated along the intestine 
shows that in many cases these communicate directly with 
the interior of the digestive tract. These are constantly 
emptying enormous numbers of bacteria which are carried to 
the outside by the feces of the bird. Without doubt the 
droppings of tuberculous fowls are the most important factor 
in the spread of this disease. This is especially true when in 
addition the birds are fed upon ground which is partly 
covered with these droppings. Besides, the infectious 
material may very easily be carried by the feet and thus 
mixed with the food. 

Ward states that there is no evidence to indicate that 
tuberculosis is spread through the egg. He cites in support 
of this first the fact that badly diseased birds do not lay, and 
second the absence of tuberculosis among young stock. 
Other authors, however, have collected statistics which 
indicate that even birds badly diseased with tuberculosis 
may continue to lay quite steadily. 

Koch and Rabinowitsch also make the following statement 
(p. 431) : "The possibility of the congenital origin of tuber- 
culosis of fowls through the infection of the fertilized egg with 
bird tuberculosis is shown by our results. It is also demon- 
strated by our inoculation experiments on eggs." Further 
they have given experimental proof of the transfer of tl.e 
bacteria of mammalian tuberculosis from the inoculated egg 
to the chick. 



Tuberculosis 129 

Lowenstein ^ states that avian tuberculosis occurs more 
frequently in man than is usually supposed and that it may 
be due to eating eggs from tuberculosis hens. Artificially 
infected eggs still contain living organisms after having been 
soft boiled. 

In this connection it is of interest to mention a case of the 
apparent transfer of fowl tuberculosis to man. In the 
Medical Record (Vol. 31, 1887) there is recorded a case of 
human tuberculosis in France which apparently came from 
eating tuberculous fowls which "were cooked very little 
before being eaten." The case occurred "in a little hamlet 
of 10 cottages isolated in the midst of a large forest." No 
other source of infection could be discovered. 

Treatment. — Fowl tuberculosis when it reaches the stage 
at which it can be diagnosed cannot be cured under our pres- 
ent knowledge. Treatment of individual cases should not be 
attempted. Salmon - says : " When the disease is discovered 
the effort should be to eradicate it at once by killing off the 
whole flock and thoroughly disinfecting all the houses and runs. 

"As the great majority of the birds will probably be more 
or less aft'ected, the chances are that any which are saved will 
have diseased livers and intestines, from which the bacilli 
will escape and keep up the infection of the flock and the 
runs. The danger of this is so great that no attempt should 
be made to keep aiw of the fowls that have been exposed to 
the contagion, no matter how valuable they may be. The 
bodies of the birds which have died or are killed, as well as 
all the accumulated manure, sweepings, and scrapings of the 
poultry houses, should be completely destroyed by fire." 

1 Lowenstein, E., "Ueber das Vorkommen von Gefliigel tuber- 
culosis beim Mensehen." Wiener Klin. Wochenschrift, Bd. 26, pp. 
785-787, 1913. 

2 Salmon, D. E., "Important Poultry Diseases." U. S. Dept. of 
Agr. Farmers' Bui. 530, 1913. 



130 Diseases of PoiiHry 

The above recommendations, while drastic, will probably 
prove the wisest in the long run. There are, however, some- 
times mitigating circumstances under which it would not be 
advisable to do this. If it is known that the disease has 
recently been introduced or that it is not very widely spread 
through the flock all of the old stock should be removed and 
killed for table purposes, providing their condition permits. 
Van Es and Schalk have show^n that it is the older birds that 
furnish the higher percentage of actual disease. Their 
autopsy records show the following : 



Age op Bird 


Per Cent op Inpected Birds 


1 

2 
3 
4 


3.33 
24.35 
86.44 
85.71 



Van Es and Schalk recommend that "After the elimina- 
tion of the older birds the remainder of the flock may be 
tuberculin tested and all fowls reacting typically or doubt- 
fully should share the same fate as the older birds." 

After the diseased birds have been disposed of the houses, 
runs, eating and drinking utensils should be thoroughly 
cleaned and disinfected. Everything loose should be burned. 
The disinfecting so far as possible should be done by boiling 
and by sunlight. ]Most of the common disinfectants cannot 
be relied upon to kill the tubercle bacilli. Heat and sun- 
light are very effective wherever they can be applied directly. 
The runs should be cultivated and the houses should be 
open to the sunshine and fresh air at all times. 

Van Es and Schalk report a flock which at the beginning of 
1913 had 249 chickens. Of these 43.37 per cent were found to 
be tuberculous by the tuberculin test and autopsy. All react- 



Tuberculosis 131 

ing and undesirable birds were eliminated, leaving 56 non- 
reacting fowls to which 47 were added by purchase. One 
year later a similar test of this flock, which had again in- 
creased to 249 birds, showed only 2.41 per cent tuberculous. 
It would seem that the measures reported might hold out 
hope that in slightly infected flocks the disease may be 
eliminated. 

In the majority of cases, however, the cost of administering 
the tuberculin, which would have to be done by an experi- 
enced veterinarian, would be more than the birds were 
worth. In such cases it will probably be best to kill off the 
old stock and after thoroughly cleaning and disinfecting 
start new with stock known to be healthy. 

If it is particularly desired to maintain the same strain of 
birds it might be done by adopting a method similar to that 
proposed by Bang for new herd building in the case of tuber- 
culous cattle. Directions for doing this are given by Morse ^ 
as follows : 

"Secure new or thoroughly disinfected ground, keeping 
it absolutely free from contact with the ground used by the 
infected flock. Erect new houses on this ground. Collect 
the eggs from the infected birds and wash them in 95 per cent 
alcohol or in a 4 per cent solution of some good coal tar 
disinfectant. Incubate these disinfected eggs in new incuba- 
tors. When hatched, remove the chicks to new brooder 
houses on the new ground. These growing chicks should be 
cared for by new men, that is to say, either different men 
from those that care for the old flock, or if you are compelled 
to use the same men they should disinfect their hands and 
shoes and put on fresh overalls before handling the new 
stock. Have different feed bins and different pails for 
distributing it. As soon as you have built up a clean flock 

^Reliable Poultry Journal, 1910. 



132 Diseases of Poultry 

destroy the old and disinfect the ground occupied by them 
by the method outHned above." 

This method is, no doubt, excellent in theory and if carried 
out with complete and never-failing attention to details 
might work. It is doubtful, however, whether in actual 
practice a poultryman would ever be able to carry it through 
successfully or profitably. 



CHAPTER X 
Internal Parasites 

Fowls are often seriously infested with internal parasites. 
The most important of these are various worms living in the 
alimentary canal. In popular usage these are spoken of 
simply as "worms." Various other internal parasites, as 
the gape worm, the air-sac mite, etc., are described in other 
sections of this book. In the main the present discussion 
will be confined to intestinal worms. 

Few flocks of poultry or indeed few birds could be found 
which are free from intestinal worms. Worms of one kind 
or another are found in the intestinal tracts of practically 
all fowls. Under ordinary conditions these parasites do no 
very serious harm. Undoubtedly the bird would be better 
off without them but they are not serious enough to be worth 
troubling about. Under certain conditions, however, these 
parasites may multiply to such an extent that they become 
a serious menace to the flock. There are several cases on 
record in recent years where epidemics of worms have put 
whole poultry plants out of business. 

Worms are spread from bird to bird usually through the 
excrement. The worms or their eggs are expelled by one 
bird and are picked up along with food and grit by another. 
Some forms are taken in with the drinking water, especially 
where fowls are allowed to drink from stagnant pools. 
Still other forms, like the tape worms, require an intermediate 
host such as an angleworm, snail, or insect. 

133 



134 Diseases of Poultry 

Diagnosis of Worms in General. — Accurate diagnosis of 
worms in the intestines can be made only by finding the 
worms in the droppings of the fowls. Fowls affected with 
worms to any great extent frequently show the general 
symptoms of dullness and depression. Birds that are sus- 
pected of being affected with worms should be shut up in a 
coop and given a dose of some vermifuge or a purgative dose 
of Epsom salts. If careful observation of the droppings is 
made at frequent intervals the worms, if present, can usually 
be detected in this way. This is not, however, an infallible 
test. 

If there is any reason to suspect that worms are present 
in the flock one or two birds showing the most advanced 
symptoms should be killed and examined. The entire 
digestive tract should be opened and the contents carefully 
examined. The intestines should be washed out in a gentle 
stream of water and their walls examined after immersing in 
a pan of water. If tape worms or other parasites which are 
attached to wall are present these can be seen readily under 
water. In case there is any doubt a competent veterinarian 
should be consulted, or a bird may be sent to the Zoological 
Division of the Bureau of Animal Industry of the United 
States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. In 
this way the worms will be identified and any specific remedies 
will be recommended. 

The principal parasitic worms which affect the digestive 
tract of fowls may be grouped into three classes as follows : 
Tape worms, round worms and flukes. 

Tape Worms 

Tape worms have long been known to infest domestic 
poultry. Occasionally serious outbreaks of the tape worm 
disease occur in various parts of the country. These out- 



Internal Parasites 



135 



breaks are usually confined to comparatively small areas and 
are perhaps more common in the southern states. 

Etiology. — The tape worms of poultry, like those which 
infest man and the domestic 
animals, are long, flat, segmented 
worms (Fig. 19). The anterior 
end of the animal possesses a 
number of hooks or suckers by 
which it attaches itself to the walls 
of the intestine. Back of this 
head the entire animal consists 
of a long series of segments or 
proglottids. The segments near- 
est the head are the smallest and 
it is at this region that new 
segments are, constantly being 
formed. The farther from the 
head they get the larger the seg- 
ments become. Towards the pos- 
terior end of the worm the seg- 
ments develop sexual organs and 
later become filled with eggs. 
As soon as the eggs are fertilized 
and mature the segment contain- 
ing them drops off and passes 
to the exterior with the feces of 
the host. Each segment of this 
kind contains thousands of eggs. 

If these eggs are to develop 
farther they must be swallowed 
by some intermediate host (as a 
worm, snail or insect). The 
egg then hatches into a 6-hooked embryo which bores its 
way from the intestine into the bodv cavitv of the inter- 




FiG. 19. — • Drepanidotcenia in- 
fundibuliformis , a tape worm 
of the fowl. (After Stiles.) 



136 Diseases of Poultry 

mediate host. It here develops into a larval form known as 
a cysticercoid. When the intermediate host (worm, snail, 
etc.) is eaten by a chicken this larva continues its develop- 
ment and forms an adult tape worm. Thus there are two 
stages in the life cycle of a tape worm : that in the adult 
host and that in the intermediate host. Each species of 
tape worm, of which there are a great many, has its par- 
ticular host, both intermediate and final. 

According to Stiles ^ there were up to 1896, 33 species of 
tape worms recorded for poultry. Of these 11 are recorded 
as occurring in chickens {Gallus). The complete life history 
is known for only a few of these. Since that time several 
other species have been described.^ 

Regarding the tape worms of chickens, Stiles {loc. cit.) 
says, p. 13 : " (They) are known to become infected with 
one tape worm through eating slugs (Liuia.r). They are 
supposed to become infected with a second through eating 
snails (Helix) ; by a third through eating flies and by a 
fourth through eating earth worms." 

There seems but little need to give a description of the 
different species of tape worms found in chickens. The 
characters by which they are distinguished from each other 
are too minute and involved to be of use to the poultryman 
or farmer. If any one is having trouble with tape worms in 
poultry the best thing to do is to send a portion of the intes- 
tine containing the worms to Washington as directed above. 
The correct identification of the species and the correspond- 
ing knowledge of its life history will often suggest a specific 
means of control. 



1 Stiles, C. W., "The Tapeworms of Poultry." U. S. Dept. of 
Agr., Bur. of Anim. Ind., Bui. 12, pp. 1-80, 1896. 

2 See Ransom, B. H., "The Tapeworms of American Chickens 
and Turkeys." U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bur. of Anim. Indus., Ann. 
Rept., 1904, pp. 268-285. 



Internal Parasites 137 

Nodular Tceniasis 

Stiles says, p. 15: "At least one species of tape worm 
(Davainea tetragona) causes a serious nodular disease of the 
intestine of chickens which upon superficial examination may- 
be easily mistaken for tuberculosis." Moore ^ says : 

"Tuberculosis is the only known disease for which this 
affection is liable to be mistaken, and it is of much importance 
that the two diseases should not be confounded. The 
diagnosis has not in my experience been difficult, as in every 
case the attached tape worms were readily detected upon a 
close examination of the intestinal contents, or of the mu- 
cous membrane of the infected portion of the intestine. How- 
ever, the worms are quite small and could easily be over- 
looked in a hurried or cursory examination. In case of 
doubt, if the affected intestine is opened and the mucous 
surface washed carefully in a gentle stream of water, the 
small worms will be observed hanging to the mucous mem- 
brane. This discovery, in the absence of lesions in the liver 
or other organs, would warrant the diagnosis of the tape 
worm disease." 

Diagnosis. — The symptoms of tape worm disease are not 
specific. The general symptoms are similar to those of other 
worms (cf. p. 134), Regarding the symptoms of tape worms 
Ziirn ^ says : 

"If numerous tape worms are present in the intestine of 
young or old fowls a more or less extensive intestinal catarrh 
develops, corresponding to the greater or less number of 
parasites present. 

"The intestinal catarrh shows itself, especially in chickens 

1 Moore, V. A., "A Nodular Tseniasis in Fowls." U. S. Dept. of 
Agric, Bur. Anim. Ind., Cire. No. 3, p. 4, 1895. 

-Ziirn, F. A., "Die Krankheiten des Hausgefliigels." Weimar, 

1882. 



138 



Diseases of PouHry 




^1 "' 



and geese, as follows : The sick animals become emaciated, 
although the appetite is not especially disturbed. At 
times the appetite is even increased. 
The droppings are thin, contain con- 
siderable yellow slime, and are passed 
in small quantities but at short inter- 
vals. The poultry raiser must direct 
his attention to these thin, slimy, and 
often bloody droppings, for if any 
treatment against the tape worm is to 
be undertaken, this must be done as 
early as possible. In observing the 
droppings it should be noticed whether 
tape worm segments or eggs are present. 
The eggs can be seen, of course, only 
with the microscope. 

"After a time other symptoms de- 
velop. The sick animals become dull 
and listless, remain apart from the 
rest of the flock — the feathers are 
ruffled and the wings droop, the appe- 
tite is lost and the birds allow them- 
selves to be easily caught. Although 
it was stated that in the beginning of 
the trouble the appetite is not dis- 
turbed, the sick animals develop an 
intense thirst for cold water. When 
it rains they run under the eaves in 
order to catch water, and in winter 
are eager for ice water." 
Since the examination of the feces for tape worm segments 
is rather unsatisfactory for the farmer or poultryman, 
Stiles says that " The best method for the farmer to follow is 
to kill one of the sick chickens when he suspects tape worms 




Fig. 20. — Intestine of 
a fowl turned wrong 
side out to show 
tape worms in nod- 
ular tseniasis. (After 
Pearson and Warren.) 



Internal Parasites 139 

and to cut out the intestine. He should then open the intes- 
tinal tract from gizzard to anus in a bowl of warm water, 
and look for the parasites" (cf. Fig. 20). Finding the 
worms in the alimentary canal is the only certain diagnosis 
of the disease. 

Treatment. — The chief drugs used for tape worms in 
fowls are : Extract of male fern, turpentine, areca nut, 
powdered kamala, pumpkin seed, pomegranate root bark 
and Epsom salts. The following extract from Salmon gives 
the principal methods of treatment and the doses: "One 
of the best methods of treating tape worms in fowls is to 
mix in the feed a teaspoonful of powdered pomegranate root 
bark for every 50 head of birds. In treating a few birds at 
a time it is well to follow this medicine wdth a purgative 
dose of castor oil (2 or 3 teaspoonsful) . According to Ziirn, 
powdered areca nut is the best tape worm remedy for fowls, 
but he states that turkeys are unfavorably affected by it. 
It may be given in doses of 30 to 45 grains mixed with butter 
and made into pills. IVIale fern is also a very effectual 
remedy and may be used in the form of powder (dose 30 
grains to 1 dram) or of liquid extract (dose 15 to 30 drops). 
It should be given in the morning and evening, before feeding. 
Oil of turpentine is an excellent remedy for all worms which 
inhabit the digestive canal. It may be given in the dose of 
1 to 3 teaspoonsful, and is best administered by forcing 
it through a small flexible catheter that has been oiled and 
passed through the mouth and esophagus to the crop. This 
medicine is less severe in its effects if diluted with an equal 
bulk of olive oil, but, if it fails to destroy the parasites when 
so diluted, it may be given pure." 

A method of administering medicine such as turpentine 
by depositing it directly in the crop has been proposed by 
Gage and Opperman.^ This method can be advantageously 

^ Gage, G. E., and Opperman, C. L., "A Tapeworm Disease of 
Fowls." Maryland Agr. Expt. Stat. Bui. 139, pp. 73-85, 1909. 



140 



Diseases of Poultry 



used with many other liquid remedies, and should be adopted 
in all cases where it is important to have the full dose in the 
stomach in a short time. It does away with the uncertainty 
attending the giving of medicine in the feed or drinking water, 
and with a little practice is more expeditious than making 




&S.G- 



Fig. 21. — Sketch showing method of introducing turpentine directly into 
crop. (After Gage and Opperman.) 



and giving pills. The open end of the catheter may be in- 
serted into a rubber bulb having one opening. Just sufficient 
air should be expelled from the bulb, so that the dose of 
medicine will be sucked up without being followed by much 
air. The bird's head is then brought in a line with the neck, 
which is extended, the catheter is ptissed carefully to the 



Internal Parasites 141 

crop (Fig. 21), when a slight pressure on the bulb forces out 
the medicine, and the instrument is withdrawn. The 
operator should be sure that he avoids the trachea. 

Gage and Opperman have found Epsom salts and tur- 
pentine a very efYective remedy for Nodular Tseniasis. After 
careful consideration of the data they conclude that "40 to 50 
grains of Epsom salts is sufficient for an adult fowl in order 
to clean out the intestinal tract so that the birds may take 
food. Then the turpentine should be introduced " as directed 
above. For younger birds the dose of salts should be pro- 
portionately less. In fowls from 6 months to 2 years old the 
salts are best given by dissolving in water and giving each 
fowl this liquid. For younger chicks the salts may be dis- 
solved in warm water and used to moisten the mash or feed. 

Prevention. — One of the most important measures against 
all parasitic infestations of the digestive tract is to move the 
fowls upon fresh ground every two or three years. This 
should be done in all cases where such parasites are fre- 
quently observed in the intestines of the birds. Another 
practical measure, which may be adopted at the same time, 
is to remove the excrement daily from the houses and destroy 
any parasites or their eggs which may be in it, by mixing it 
with quick lime or saturating it with a 10 per cent solution 
of sulphuric acid. The acid is cheap, but requires that 
great care be taken in diluting it, owing to danger of its 
splashing upon the clothing and flesh and causing severe 
burns. It should always be poured slowly into the water 
used for dilution, but on no account should water be poured 
into the acid as it will cause explosions and splashing. 

When treating diseased birds these should always be 
isolated and confined, and their droppings should either be 
burned or treated with lime or sulphuric acid as just recom- 
mended. Without these hygienic measures, medical treat- 
ment can only be partially successful. 



142 



Diseases of Poidtry 



Stiles says : " An extermination of slugs will insure im- 
munity against Davainea proglotiina, but no precise directions 
can be given to prevent chickens from becoming infected 
with other tape worms until the life history of these parasites 
is better understood. It will be well, however, to keep the 
chickens housed in the morning until the sun is well up and 
the ground is dry, for they will thus be less likely to meet 
with the supposable intermediate hosts of other worms." . 

Round Worms 

Round worms can be found in the intestine and especially 
the ceca of almost any fowl. They are much more common 
than the tape worms. Normally the round worms cause 




Fig. 22. Worms protruding from a section of the intestine of a fowl. (After 

Bradshaw.) 

no serious trouble to fowls. Under certain conditions, how- 
ever, they may become so numerous as to be a serious menace 
to the flock. At such times they have a decided effect on 
the digestion ; the irritation often causes diarrhea. When 



InfrrunI Parasites 143 

in large numbers, they sometimes become rolled and matted 
into a ball which may cause complete stoppage of the in- 
testine. 

The round worms are white in color and vary in length 
from ^ inch to 5 inches. The head end is sharp pointed, 
while the tail end is more blunt. Round worms are seldom 
passed in the feces unless present in very large numbers. 
When a worm is passed it soon dies in the droppings or is 
eaten by another fowl. 

Dispharagus spirah's, a small worm about ^ inch in 
length, is often found in the esophagus and occasionally in 
the crop or intestine. 

Dispharagus nasutus, about j inch long, occurs in the walls 
of the gizzard of fowls. It sometimes becomes so numerous 
as to cause serious loss. 

Another nematode, CJieilosperura haimdosa, parasite in 
the gizzard of the chicken has recently been recorded in this 
country by Ransom.^ Specimens have been found from the 
District of Columbia as far west as Kansas. 

Two other nematodes, Trichosoma strunosum and Gingy- 
lonema ingluvicola, have been found in the pharynx and 
esophagus of chickens." 

Heterakis perspicillum, from 1^ to 3 inches long, is very 
common in the intestines of fowls. They sometimes become 
very numerous and may become rolled into rather large 
balls which obstruct the passage of the food. 

Scott ^ has found that this nematode may be transmitted 
to young chicks through an earthworm (probably Helodrilas 

1 Ransom, B. H., "The Occurrence of Cheilosperura hntnulosa 
in the United States." Science, N. S., Vol. 35, p. 55.5, 1912. 

2 Crurea, J., Zeiischr. Infekt. u. Hyg. d. Haust. Bd. 15, pp. 49-60, 
1914. 

^ Scott, J. W., "A New Means of Transmitting the Fowl Nema- 
tode, Heterakis perspicillum." Science, N. S., Vol. 38, pp. 672-673, 
1913. 



144 



Diseases of Poultry 



parvus) found in horse manure. Whether the worm is an 

intermediate host or whether the nematode eggs simply 

ding to the surface of the worm has not been determined. 

Several other species of the genus 

Heterakis also infest fowls and other 

poultry. 

At least one species of ascaris {Ascaris 
inflexa) is found in the fowl. This is 
a round worm white or yellowish-white 
in color and from one to two inches 
in length. If they occur in sufficient 
numbers they produce considerable 
irritation in the digestive tract. In- 
fested birds appear unthrifty, lack 
appetite and become emaciated. 

Occasionally this or other round 
worms may pass from the cloaca into 
the oviduct or egg tube. In this way 
they may be incorporated in the albu- 
men of an egg as it is formed in the ovi- 
duct. 

Diagnosis. — The symptoms of round 
worms are similar to those of all worms 
(cf. p. 134). There is evidence of indi- 
gestion. The comb becomes pale and 
there may be diarrhea. 

Treatment. — The remedies men- 
tioned on p. 139 for tape worms are 
also useful for round worms. The remedy most commonly 
advised is to give 2 grains santonine for each bird. Dis- 
solve this in water and use to mix the mash. As recom- 
mended on p. 141, all droppings should be collected and 
examined, also put out of reach of the birds. 

Vale recommends the following: "Beat a new laid egg 




Fig. 23. — Heterakis 
perspicillum. a, male. 
b, female. X 2. (Af- 
ter Salmon.) 



Internal Parasites 



145 



with 1 tablespoonful of oil of turpentine and mix thoroughly 
by shaking. Give a teaspoonful of the mixture night and 
morning for a few days ; or divide \ of an ounce of areca nut 
in powder, into 4 parts, and 
give 1 part each morning, 
fasting, with a dessertspoon- 
ful of sweet oil 2 hours after 
each powder." 

Flukes 



Flukes or trematode worms 
are small, flat and usually 
oval-shaped. Figure 24 gives 
a fair idea of the appearance 
of these parasites. 

Regarding these parasites 
in poultry, Theobald ^ says : 

" The Trematode worms or 
Flukes found in the fowl are 
3 in number. One is found 
in the egg (Distoma ovatum) 
the others in the esophagus 
and intestines. 

"The Fluke found in the 
esophagus of the fowl is 
known as Ce'phalogonimus 
pellucidus, as transparent 
reddish fluke about 9 mm. 
Von Linstor and Railliet. 




&v. 



Fig. 24. — ■ Trematode worm or fluke 
showing internal structure. (From 
Thompson after Sommer.) 



long. These were found by 
In the intestines Neumann 
enumerates 7 species, namely, Notocotyle triserialis, Distoma 
oxycephalum Rud., D. dilatatum Miriam, D. lineare Zeder, 
D. ovatum, D. armatum Molin, and Mesogonimus commutatus 

1 Theobald, F. V., "Parasitic Diseases of Poultry." London. 

L 



146 Diseases of Poultry 

Son. These, however, are not all distinct : dUatatum is 
undoubtedly the same as oxycephalum ; armatum is also 
probably the same." 

None of these trematode worms are of any pathological 
importance, although, as is well known, they often cause 
serious maladies in other animals. All the flukes that have 
two hosts undergo a complicated metamorphosis, the early 
stages always taking place in some water-mollusk. Those 
found in the fowl have not had their life-histories worked 
out. 

Numerous flagellate and other microscopic parasites have 
been described from the intestine, ceca and cloaca of 
fowls. Martin and Robertson ^ mention particularly the 
flagellates, ChUomastix gallinarum, Trichomonas gaUinarum, 
Trypanosoma eberthi and Trichomastix gallinarum. 

Berke ^ describes a microfilaria occurring very abundantly 
in the liver of domestic fowls. 

None of these parasites causes serious injury so far as 
known. 

^Martin, C. H., and Robertson, Muriel, "Further Observations 
on the Cecal Parasites of Fowls with some Reference to the Rectal 
Fauna of Other Vertebrates." Quart. Jour. Micros. Sci. (London), 
N. S., Vol. 57, pp. 53-81, 1911. 

2 Berke, Centralb. f. Bakt., etc., Abt. 1, Bd. 58, pp. 326-330, 1911. 



CHAPTER XI 
Diseases of the Respiratory System 



ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 

The respiratory organs of birds are the nasal passages, the 
pharynx, larynx, 
trachea, lungs and 
air sacs. The form 
and general appear- 
ance of the lungs 
and trachea are 
shown in Fig. 25. 

The respiratory 
apparatus differs 
somewhat in struc- 
ture and function 
from that of mam- 
mals. As in mam- 
mals the trachea 
(windpipe) divides 
into the primary 
bronchi, one pass- 
ing to each lung. 
In birds these 
bronchi do not di- 
vide and subdivide ^^^ 35 _ photograph of the lungs of a do- 
as in mammals, but mestic fowl. The air passages are injected 

each passes to the with gelatine. (Original.) 

147 




148 



Diseases of Poultry 






posterior end of its lung where it opens into the abdominal 
air sac. This relation is shown in Fig. 26. 

The primary bronchus gives off secondary bronchi which 
radiate toward the surface of the lungs. The secondary 
bronchi give off smaller radiating branches, the tertiary 
bronchi. Both primary and secondary bronchi remain of 

practically uniform 
-..--~(f' diameter through- 

^. . "^^^ • -..>.. out their entire 

•""^ ^ length. P'or the 
most part these 
tubes end blindly, 
but some of them 
communicate with 
the air sacs. This 
tubular system 
makes up the air- 
containing portion 
of the lungs. It is 
embedded in a net- 
work of almost 
naked blood vessels 
which make up the 
spongy tissue of the 
lungs. The aera- 
tion of the blood 
takes place through 
the walls of these vessels. The intimate relations of the 
tubular and vascular systems of the lungs are shown in 
Fig. 28. 

The air sacs are very large, thin-walled sacs which open 
into the bronchial tubes as described. When expanded 
with air these sacs fill all the available space in the thoracic- 
abdominal cavity and axilla. A small sac also lies along the 




Fig. 26. — Diagrammatic drawing of the left 
lung of a domestic fowl, a, primary bronchus ; 
b, secondary bronchus ; b^, openings of other 
secondary bronchi ; c, opening of tertiary 
bronchus ; d, openings into air sacs. (Origi- 
nal.) 



Diseases of the Respiratory System 



149 



ventral side of the neck, while diverticula from the large sacs 
are embedded among the muscles and even penetrate some 
of the bones. These sacs function chiefly as reservoirs of 
air. Some aeration of blood takes place in the sacs and they 
also help to reduce the relative weight of the body. The air 
sacs are the elastic or 
bellows-like portion of 
the respiratory appara- 
tus. The lungs, on ac- 
count of their structure 
and position in the body, 
are permanently dis- 
tended. During inspira- 
tion the air passes 
through the trachea and 
lungs into the sacs. 
Fresh outside air is thus 
brought into the portion 
of the lungs where the 
blood is aerated. During 
expiration air from the 
sacs is forced back 
through the lungs. The 
current sucks out the air 
from the blind ending 
tubes and to some extent 
supplies comparatively fresh air in expiration. Thus the 
respiratory apparatus in birds is more efficient than in 
mammals, where fresh air is never available for the aera- 
tion of the blood, the entire process being carried on by 
residual air. 

In addition to aeration of the blood, the respiratory ap- 
paratus eliminates most of the waste moisture of the body and 
is, therefore, the temperature regulator. In mammals this 




Fig. 27. — Ventral surface of the right 
king of a fowl, injected with wax. 
(From Gadow, after Stieda.) 



150 Diseases of Poultry 

function is performed by the sweat glands and the secretion 
of the kidneys. Birds have no sweat glands and the secre- 
tion of the kidneys contains relatively little moisture. 

The air passages are lined with mucous membrane and this 
membrane is the seat of several diseases. Diseases are easily 




P'k;. 28. — Cross section of two of the small air tubes of the lung of a goose. 
On the right the air passages are filled with black injection mass. On 
the left the arteries are similarly injected. (From Oppel, after Schulze.) 

transferred from one part of the respiratory system to another, 
since the passages and also the lining membranes are contin- 
uous from the nostrils to the air sacs. There are also diseases 
of the vascular part of the lungs. Some of these diseases are 
caused by unfavorable conditions as exposure to cold, 
drafts of air, or moist air or to improper food. Others 
are due to specific organisms. Most of the latter are con- 
tagious. Exposure to unfavorable conditions also reduces 
the abilitv of the birds to resist infectious diseases. 



Diseasr.'i of the Respiratory Si/stem 151 

Catarrh {Simple Catarrh; Non-coyitagions Catarrh; Cold) 

One of the most common diseases of the air passages 
is catarrh (cold) . It is often hard to distinguish this disease 
from early stages of roup and diphtheria. The characteristic 
symptoms of the latter disease should be carefully looked for, 
lest the flock become infected with a dangerous contagious 
disease. In cases where there is a suspicion of either of 
these diseases it is better to isolate the sick birds. Catarrh 
is non-contagious. It usually affects only a few individuals 
in the flock, but in cases of exposure of the flock to the un- 
favorable conditions which cause the disease it may occur 
in quite a number of birds at the same time. 

Diagnosis. — Aft'ected birds sneeze frequently, appear dull 
and lose their appetites. In early stages of the disease a 
thin mucous secretion is discharged from the nostrils. Often 
the eyes are watery and the eyelids inflamed and swollen. 
Later, in severe cases, the mucous secretions become gelati- 
nous. The head passages may become entirely filled with 
this thick secretion. Breathing is then entirely through the 
mouth and is accompanied by a wheezing sound. A watery 
liquid drools from the mouth. Death occurs, apparently 
from exhaustion, in very severe cases. 

Etiology. — The cause of catarrh is exposure to cold, to 
drafts of air, to damp atmosphere due to improper housing 
conditions, or to wet weather. Weak stock or improperly 
nourished birds are more likely to be affected by these con- 
ditions than strong, vigorous and well fed individuals. 

Treatment. — With strong, healthy stock it is usually only 
necessary to remove the cause. Affected birds should be 
kept in warm, dry, well ventilated rooms. Daily individual 
treatment is effective and may profitably be applied if the 
attack is severe and the bird valuable. 

This treatment when most effective involves three steps : 



152 Diseases of Poultry 

(1) Removal of secretions. The mouth and nostrils and 
the eyes, if affected, should be washed with warm water con- 
taining 1 teaspoonful of common salt to the quart. A small 
wad of absorbent cotton may be used to apply this cleansing 
solution. The sides of the head under the eyes and around 
the nostrils should be massaged gently to loosen the secretion. 

(2) Disinfecting the air passages and eyes. The air pas- 
sages and eyes should now be disinfected with one of the fol- 
lowing solutions, given here in order of preference : 

a. Potassium permanganate, 2 per cent solution. 

b. Boracic acid, 3 per cent solution. 

c. Creolin, 1 per cent solution. 

d. Hydrogen dioxide and water, ecjual parts. 

e. Carbolic acid, 2 per cent solution. 

These solutions may be injected into the nostrils with a 
small syringe or a medicine dropper, but on account of the 
small aperture of the nostrils they are more effectively ap- 
plied through the internal opening of the air passages. This 
is a long, widely open slit in the roof of the mouth. It is 
easily exposed in a position to receive the treatment by hold- 
ing the bird head down, grasping the head, comb down, in the 
hand and opening the mouth with the thumb. The solution 
may then be injected into the slit or poured in with a teaspoon. 
The head should be held firmly in this position for several 
seconds after the treatment to allow the solution to pene- 
trate to all parts of the head passages. Gently massaging 
the sides of the head also helps distribute the disinfectant. 
The eyes may be washed with the same disinfecting solution 
used for the nostrils. 

(3) Applying oil to the head passages. A quarter of a 
teaspoonful of oil of thyme, oil of eucalyptus, or even sweet 
oil should now be administered in the same way as the disin- 
fecting solution. If the eyes are affected introduce 2 drops 
of 15 per cent argyrol solution. 



Diseases of the Respiratory System 153 

When the head passages are not filled with mucus the ap- 
plication of the oil to the nostrils and argyrol to the eyes 
without the previous steps is very beneficial. 

Prognosis. — A great majority of the birds recover in a few 
days if the cause is immediately removed. If the cause con- 
tinues to act they may become worse and die, or the disease 
may become chronic and persist for a long time. 

. Bronchitis, Croup 

This disease may follow catarrh as a direct extension 
of the inflammatory processes in the membrane of the 
nasal cavities and throat to the mucous membrane of bron- 
chial tubes. 

Diagnosis. — The symptoms of bronchitis are the symptoms 
of a hard cold (severe catarrh) with rapid breathing and 
cough. It may be distinguished from a cold by the peculiar 
sounds made in breathing. In the early stages of the disease 
this is a whistling sound made by the passage of the air 
over the dry, thickened membrane. As the disease advances 
mucus collects in the tubes and the breathing is accompanied 
by a rattling or bubbling sound. Under favorable conditions 
the symptoms do not usually pass beyond this stage but soon 
disappear. In very severe cases the birds become very sleepy 
and refuse to eat. The wings droop. The feathers are 
roughened and breathing becomes more and more difficult, 
until finally the bird dies. The less severe forms of the dis- 
ease may become chronic, while the symptoms of rattling 
breath and coughing up mucus may persist for a long time. 
In this form of the disease the birds appear well except for the 
above symptoms. 

Etiology. — When it follows a hard cold, bronchitis may be 
caused by an extension of the inflammation of the mucosa of 
the throat to the mucosa of the bronchial tubes. It mav also 



154 Diseases of Poultry 

be caused directly by exposure to cold, drafts, and damp- 
ness; or it may result from irritation of the mucous 
membrane caused by inhaling irritating vapors, dust or 
foreign particles. 

Treatment. — Place the patient in a warm, dry, well venti- 
lated but not drafty room. Feed bread or middlings 
moistened with milk, and add to this food 2 grains of black 
antimony twice a day. A demulcent drink is often beneficial. 
A very good one is made by steeping a little flax seed in water. 
Other demulcent drinks are made by dissolving honey or gum 
arable in water. This treatment is sufficient for mild cases. 
Salmon recommends the following treatment for severe at- 
tacks : " If the attack promises to be severe, it may sometimes 
be checked in the early stages by giving 10 drops of spirits 
of turpentine in a teaspoonful of castor oil and repeating this 
dose after 5 or 6 hours. It should not be continued after there 
are signs of purging, for fear of exhausting the strength of 
the patient. In the very acute cases, where the whistling 
or snoring sounds with the respiration indicate a croupous 
form of inflammation, and where the gasping shows great 
obstruction of the air passage, relief may be obtained by 
giving from 3 to 6 drops of either the sirup or the wine of 
ipecac. 

"Medicines should be administered very carefully in dis- 
eases affecting the trachea and bronchi, as otherwise they 
may enter the air passages and increase the irritation." 

Prognosis. — In the ordinary and chronic forms the birds 
usually recover. In the more severe forms a large per cent 
of the affected birds die. 

Influenza (Epizootic, Grippe, Distemper) 

The symptoms are the same as those of a severe cold ac- 
companied by fever and usually also by diarrhea. It ap- 



Diseases of the Respiratory System 155 

pears to be a contagious germ disease as it often affects a 
large number of birds kept together. 

Quite possibly this is not a separate disease but is either 
a severe form of cold occurring in many individuals of a 
flock which has been exposed to unfavorable, unsanitary 
conditions, or is a mild form of roup. Affected birds should 
be isolated. If diarrhea is present give one-half to one tea- 
spoonful of Epsom salts dissolved in water. Treatment the 
same as for colds. 

Prognosis. — Most cases recover in a week or ten days. 
Severe cases die in a day or two or sometimes within a few 
hours after the appearance of the first symptoms. 

Rowp 

Veterinarians have distinguished two diseases belonging 
to this general class of troubles as follows : («) roup or 
contagious catarrh when only catarrhal symptoms are 
present, and {h) diphtheria, diphtheritic roup and canker when 
diphtherial patches and false membranes are formed. The 
bacteriologists Harrison and Streit,^ consider these different 
stages of the same disease. This view has been quite 
generall}^ accepted. Cary ^ and several other workers ^ not 
only consider these as one disease but also believe that sore- 
head, chicken pox or epithelioma contagiosum is also a form 
of this disease. Evidence for the identity of " avian 
diphtheria " or " diphtheritic roup " and chicken pox is 

^Harrison, F. C, and Streit, H., "Roup." Ontario Agr. Col. 
and Expt. Farm Bull. 125. 1902. Ibid., Bui. 132. 1904. 

^ Cary, C. A., " Chicken Pox or Sore Head in Poultry." Ala- 
bama Col. Sta. Bui. 136. 1906. 

^ For example, Kingsley, A. F., "Epithelioma Contagiosum." 
Amer. Vet. Rev., 30. 1907. Hadley, F. B., and Beach, B. A., 
" Controlling Chicken Pox, Sore Head or Contagious Epithelioma 
by Vaccination." Proc. Amer. Vet. Med. Assoc, Vol. 50, pp. 704- 
712. 1913. 



156 Diseases of Poultry 

cited by several European investigators.^ On the other 
hand Haring and Kofoid " and Sweet ^ and Fally "^ believe 
that there is convincing evidence that sore-head is dis- 
tinct from the roup diseases. These questions cannot be 
settled with the present knowledge of the causes of these 
diseases. The probability is that there are at least three 
diseases although each of them may under certain conditions 
produce lesions similar to those of either of the other two. 
In fact the disagreement in the results of different investi- 
gators suggests that there may be several contagious diseases 
which produce nearly identical lesions. In the present work 
nasal roup, diphtheritic roup, and chicken pox will be dis- 
cussed as separate diseases. 

Nasal Roup or Contagious Catarrh 

The disease called "roup" by poultrymen is a contagious 
catarrh. It attacks principally the membranes lining the eye, 
the sacs below the eye (infra-orbital sinuses), the nostrils, the 
larynx, and the trachea. 

Diagnosis. — The general characteristics of the disease 
have been very well described by Salmon. The symptoms 
first seen are very similar to those of an ordinary cold, but 

1 Carnwath, T., Arb. K. Gsndhsamt. Orig. 27, pp. 388-402. 1907. 
Schmid, G., Centbl. Bakt., etc., Orig. 52, pp. 200-234. 1909. Ratz, I., 
Allotorvosi Lapok, Vol. 33, pp. 184-186. 1910. Sigwart, H., Centbl. 
Bakt., etc., Orig. 56, pp. 428-464. 1910. Uhlenhuth and Manteufel. 
Arb. K. Gsndhsamt., Vol. 38, pp. 288-304. 1910. von Betegh, L., 
Centbl. Bakt., etc., Orig. 67, pp. 43-50. 1912. von Katz, S., Monatsch. 
Prakt. Tierheilk., Vol. 25, pp. 41-46. 1913. 

-Haring, C. M., and Kofoid, C. A., "Observations concerning 
the Pathology of Roup and Chicken Pox." Amer. Vet. Rev., Vol. 
40, pp. 717-728. 1912. 

^ Sweet, C. D., " A Study of Epithelioma Contagiosum of the 
Common Fowl." Univ. of Col. Pubs. ZooL, Vol. 11, pp. 29-51. 
1913. 

"Fally, V. Ann. Med. Vet., Vol. 57, pp. 68-75. 1908. 



Diseases of the Respiratory System 



157 



there is more fever, dullness and prostration. Harrison and 
Streit say that although the head is often very hot the body 
temperature is normal or only very slightly higher than nor- 
mal. The discharge from the nasal opening is at first thin 
and watery, but in two or three days becomes thick and ob- 
structs the breathing. The inflammation, which begins in 

Eye displaced and closed by 
Tumor. swollen membranes. 




Fig. 29. — Photograph of a fowl's head showing infra-orbital tumor caused 
by roup. (After Roebuck.) 



the nasal passages, soon extends to the eyes and to the spaces 
which exist immediately below the eyeballs. The eyelids 
are swollen, and are closed much of the time. They may be 
glued together by the accumulated secretion. The birds 
sneeze and shake their heads in their efforts to free the air 
passages from the thick mucus. The appetite is diminished 
and the birds sit with their heads drawn in, wings drooping, 
with the general appearance of depression and illness. 



158 



Diseases of Poultry 



When the inflammation reaches the spaces or sacs beneath 
the eyes it causes the formation of a secretion very similar 
to that of the nose, and as this becomes thick it collects, dis- 
tends the walls of these spaces, and produces a warm and 
painful swelling, which is seen just below the eyes and may 
reach the size of a hickory nut. This swelling presses with 
much force on the eyeball, which is displaced and more or 




Ym. 'SO. — ■ Showing appearance of a hen a day before death from roup. 
(After Harrison and Streit.) 

less deformed ; and in extreme cases even the bones of the 
head may give way before it. 

The closure of the eyes prevents the badly affected birds 
from finding food ; the accumulation of mucus in the nostrils 
completely obstructs these passages, so that the beak must 
be kept open in order to breathe ; the obstruction of the 
windpipe and the smaller air tubes causes loud breathing 
sounds and difficult respiration. 

In the severe and advanced cases the birds sitv.in a som- 
nolent or. semiconscious condition, unable to see or to eat; 
their strength is rapidly exhausted, and many of them die 
within a week or ten days. A part of the affected indi- 



Diseases of the Respiratonj System 159 

viduals recover, but others continue weak and have a chronic 
form of the disease for months ; during which time they con- 
tinue to disseminate the contagion. 

This disease is distinguished from diphtheria by the ab- 
sence of the thick, tough, and very adherent newly formed 
membranes (false membranes) in the nostrils, mouth, and 
throat which are characteristic of the latter. 

The Course of the Disease. — The course of roup is usually 
of long duration. A simple, putrid discharge from the nose 
may stop in three or four weeks. But generally the symp- 
toms last for months. When the eyelids become swollen 
and tumors appear, the case is usually chronic. Affected 
birds may be better for a few days or weeks, and then be- 
come very weak again. Damp, cold weather usually inten- 
sifies the disease. 

It is well known that fowls may be more or less sick from 
roup for one or even several years and these birds should 
have the greatest care and attention, or else be killed at once, 
for they are generally the cause of new outbreaks. Once 
introduced, roup may remain in a flock for many years. The 
first cold and moist nights of the fall and early winter 
cause all kinds of catarrhs, which in many instances are 
followed by roup. Roup spreads rapidly in the winter 
time and may attack from 10 to 90 per cent of the fowls in 
a flock. Towards spring, the disease gradually disappears ; 
during the summer months, a few birds remain chronically 
aft'ected ; and then the first cold nights give the disease a 
fresh start. 

There is a great deal of difference in the susceptibility of 
fowls to the disease. Young fowls and finely bred fowls are 
especially liable to contract it. Some birds are apparently 
naturally immune and never take the disease. Others ap- 
parently have it in a mild form and completely recover, 
having thereby acquired an immunit3^ 



160 Diseases of Poultry 

Etiology. — Several organisms have been isolated from the 
lesions of birds suffering from roiip.^ Four of these have some 
claim to be considered the cause of the disease. These include 
three species of bacteria and one protozoon. There is also 
some evidence that the cause of the disease is an invisible 
virus. While the specific organism or organisms which cause 
the disease are not certainly known its infectious nature is 
well established. It is probably carried from one individual 
to another in a flock, by the particles of dried secretion in the 
air or possibly by the food and drink contaminated by the 
diseased birds. It may be introduced into a flock by the 
bringing in of birds from an infected flock, or by birds that 
have contracted the disease at shows. Possibly it is sometimes 
carried on the shoes or clothing of persons coming from in- 
fected yards or houses, and possibly also by wild birds or 
pigeons which fly from one poultry yard to another. While 
a source of infection is necessary for the production of the 
disease it does not appear to attack birds when the mucous 
membrane is in a healthy condition. It is most apt to attack 
birds that are suffering with catarrh. When a flock once 
becomes infected the birds which develop a mild chronic form 
of the disease serve as sources of infection whenever ex- 
posure to cold and dampness causes catarrh in the unaffected 

^ Much confusion in regard to etiology of the diseases belonging 
to general class commonly referred to as roup arises from the fact 
that several investigators believe them to be stages in a single dis- 
ease. A partial list of the literature on the etiology of roup and 
diphtheria follows. Harrison, F. C, and Streit, H., loc. cit. Uhlen- 
huth and Manteufel, loc. cit. von Betegh, L., loc. cit. von Katz, 
S., loc. cit. Guerin, C, A7171. Inst. Pasteur, T. 15, pp. 941-952. 
1901. Borrel. Compi. Rend. Soc. Biol. (Paris), T. 57, pp. 642-643. 
1904. Galh-Valerio. Cenlbl. Bakt. Orig., Bd. 36, pp. 465-471. 1904. 
Streit, H., Ztsch. Hyg. u. Infectionskrank. 46, pp. 407-462. 1904. 
Muller, R., Ce?itbl. Bakt., etc., Orig. 41, pp. 423-426 ; 515-523 ; 621- 
628. 1906. Bordet, J., et FaUy, V., Ann. Inst. Pasteur, T. 24, 
pp. 563-568. 1910. 



Diseases of the Respiratory System 161 

birds. Thus in infected flocks an outbreak of roup usually 
follows catarrh caused by exposure and this fact has led some 
poultrymen to think that the disease may be caused directly 
by exposure. In some flocks it appears annually with the 
cold damp weather of late autumn and breaks out again at 
every radical change of temperature and moisture conditions 
throughout the winter. Vigorous and properly nourished 
birds are better able to resist catarrh and consequently roup 
than those that are delicate and improperly fed. 

Treatment. — The best treatment is prevention. The dis- 
ease can be prevented by stopping all sources of infection. 
Some things to keep in mind are : 

1. In introducing new birds always procure them from 
uninfected flocks. 

2. Isolate all new birds and all birds that have been ex- 
hibited at shows for two or three weeks to make sure that 
they do not develop the disease. 

3. Exclude from uninfected house and yards poultry and 
all other animals, including men, coming from those that are 
infected. 

4. Do not use implements as hoes, shovels, etc., that have 
been used on infected premises. 

5. Keep the birds in a good hygienic condition, well nour- 
ished and in dry well ventilated houses and roomy yards. 

When the disease has been introduced into the flock careful 
precaution may prevent its spread. 

1 . Immediately separate from the flock any bird that shows 
symptoms of the disease. 

2. Disinfect the yards and houses with a 5 per cent solu- 
tion of carbolic acid or better the cresol solution described 
in chapter II. Remove the litter from the houses and dis- 
infect freely. This disinfecting solution may also be fol- 
lowed by whitewash. 

3. Use potassium permanganate in all drinking water. 



162 Diseases of Poultry 

4. Keep watch of the flock so that any new cases may be 
isolated at once. 

5. Burn or bury deep all birds that die. 

The disease is amenable to treatment but this treatment 
must be individual and requires a great deal of time. It 
must be continued once or twice a day for quite a long time. 
It is, therefore, very expensive and consequently imprac- 
ticable for ordinary stock. Moreover birds apparently cured 
are likely to become the source of infection for later outbreaks. 

In the case of valuable show birds treatment may perhaps 
be advisable. 

The treatment recommended for catarrh or cold may be 
used effectively in early stages of roup. 

Harrison and Streit ^ give the following methods of treating 
roup: 

" The germs of roup are not very resistant ; they can 
easily be destroyed when present in cultures, or somewhere 
outside the animal ; but in the animal tissue, they are very 
difficult to kill, because they penetrate into the tissue ; and 
unless this too is killed, the germs continue living for a 
long time." 

" Roup may be cured by remedies, if the treatment is careful 
and judicious. ... If the eyes and nose are attacked, they 
have to be carefully washed, at least twice a day, with an 
antiseptic solution, such as 2 per cent boracic acid in a 
decoction of chamomile flowers, or ^ per cent solution of 
corrosive sublimate. Thus the micro-organisms are killed 
or at least, the diseased products which are discharged are 
removed, and the irritation caused by them ; also the trans- 
formation into large cheesy masses is prevented. 

"We had chickens badly aft'ected with roup of the eyes, 
which were cured with boracic acid and chamomile. On 

' Harrison, F. C, and Streit, H., Roup. Ont. Agr. Coll. & Exp. 
Farm. Bui. 125, Dec. 1902, pp. 1-16. 



Diseases of the Respiratory System 163 

account of the smallness of the nostrils and nasal canals, it is 
very difficult to get the antiseptic solutions into the nose and 
nasal cavities; but it can be done with a small syringe. If 
this treatment is too troublesome, then the nostrils, at least, 
should be washed and opened several times a day, to allow the 
secretions to pass away. We have treated chickens for 14 
days by daily washing with a 2^ per cent solution of creolin 
and glycerine. After the washings, small plugs of cotton 
wool, filled with mixture, were placed in the nostrils and 
lachrymal ducts. This remedy did not cure the roup, al- 
though the same mixture readily kills the roup bacillus in 
cultures in from 2 to 3 minutes. The greatest hindrance to a 
sure cure by remedies which have been used locally, is the 
ability of the germ to penetrate into the tissue and the many 
secondary cavities of the nostrils which cannot be reached 
by the antiseptic. 

"Another method of treatment which gives excellent 
results, especially in the early stages of roup, is the use of 1 to 
2 per cent of permanganate of potash. Fowls are treated in 
the following manner : The nostrils are pressed together 
between thumb and forefinger in the direction of the beak two 
or three times. Pressure should also be applied between 
nostrils and eyes in an upward direction. This massage helps 
to loosen the discharge in the nostrils and eyes. The bird's 
head is then plunged into the solution of permanganate of 
potash for 20 or 30 seconds, in fact the head may be kept 
under the solution as long as the bird can tolerate it. The 
solution is thus distributed through the nostrils and other 
canals and has an astringent and slight disinfecting action. 
This treatment should be given twice a day and continued 
until all sjTnptoms have disappeared. 

"If there are solid tumors in the eyelids, they should be 
opened so that the skin may bleed freely. The cheesy matter 
should be removed and the surrounding membrane touched 



164 Diseases of Poultry 

with a 5 per cent carbolic acid or silver nitrate solution, and 
then a cotton plug put in again to prevent the cavity from 
healing too quickly. We have cured chickens in this way in 
about a fortnight. 

"As all these methods of treatment demand a good deal 
of time and care, they cannot well be used for whole flocks, 
but the more valuable fowls may be treated in this manner. 
Farmers and poultrymen should first try the permanganate 
of potash method of treatment as it is the easiest to employ. 

"Food remedies influence roup only by strengthening the 
fowls and assisting nature to throw off or conquer the 
disease." 

The birds which are being treated should be kept in a dry, 
warm, well ventilated room with good nourishing food. The 
drinking water should be frequently changed. 

Prognosis. — In infected flocks this disease caused a direct 
annual loss of 10 to 15 per cent of the flock. Also many birds 
contract a chronic form of the disease which aft'ects them for 
months or years. Careful individual treatment will save the 
lives of many birds, but such treatment is economically in- 
advisable except in case of very valuable birds. 

Diphtheritic Roup (Avian Diphtheria or Canker) 

As previously stated this disease is considered by several 
investigators as a stage or a form of the same disease as nasal 
roup. There is, however, some good evidence^ that they are 

^ For instance, in the Maine Station flock occasional cases of 
nasal roup appeared annually with unfavorable weather conditions, 
but there were never any false membranes formed. About five 
years ago some new stock was introduced. A few months later 
cases of typical avian diphtheria appeared in these birds and a 
little later in other birds in the same pens. This disease was some- 
times associated with the lesions common to nasal roup, but often 
the two diseases were quite ; eparate. 



Diseases of the Respiratory System 165 

separate diseases although in early stages they cannot be 
distinguished. There has also been a considerable discussion 
of the possible identity of avian and human diphtheria, but 
the evidence that these are distinct seems conclusi\'e. Diph- 
theritic roup is distinguished from nasal roup by the forma- 
tion of false membranes on the mucous surface of the nostrils, 
eyes, mouth, throat, trachea or bronchi. These membranes 
are a tough, grayish or yellowish growth and adhere very 
firmly to the underlying tissue. 

The first symptoms appear in from three to five days after 
exposure to contagion. The duration of the disease varies 
from a few days to several months. Many birds in the 
flock appear to be naturally immime or sufficiently \'igorous 
to overcome the disease without the formation of the charac- 
teristic lesions. On account of mild, undetectable cases 
diphtheritic roup is very hard to eradicate without sacrificing 
the whole flock, disinfecting the premises, and starting anew 
with incubator chicks or clean purchased stock. 

Diagnosis. — Following the excellent account given by 
Salmon it may be said that diphtheria begins as a local ir- 
ritation or inflammation at some point on the internal sur- 
face of the mouth, throat, nostril or eyes. At this time the 
general health is not yet affected, and there is nothing but 
the diphtheritic deposit to indicate that the bird has been 
attacked. This deposit is at first thin, yellowish or whitish 
in color, and gradually becomes thicker, firmer, and more 
adherent, so that considerable force is required to remove it. 
The mucous membrane beneath the deposit is found, when 
the latter is removed, to be inflamed, ulcerated, and bleed- 
ing, but it is soon covered by a new deposit. This deposit 
is called a false membrane, and when it is situated where the 
air passes over it in breathing it dries, becomes uneven and 
fissured, and its color changes to a dark brown. 

While the false membranes over the parts first aft'ected are 



166 



Diseases of Poultry 



becoming thicker, the inflammation extends to the adjoining 
surfaces, and new diphtheritic centers develop, uniting with 
each other until the cheeks, the tongue, the palate, the throat, 
and the inside of the nostrils are covered. Very often the 



Tumor with hard cheesy center. 




Fibrinous masses over mouth and tongue and protruding. 
Fig. 31. — Diphtheritic roup or canker. (After Roebuck.) 



inflammation extends from the nostrils to the eyes and the 
sacs beneath the eyes, and sometimes it penetrates the air 
tubes to the lungs or the gullet to the crop. 

This extension of the disease leads to the appearance of 
other symptoms. The inflammation in the nostrils causes 



Diseases of the Respiratory System 167 

sneezing and the escape of a tliin, watery secretion from the 
nasal openings ; the thick false membranes fill up the nasal 
passages and the throat and obstruct the breathing ; a thick, 
viscid secretion collects on the eyelids and glues them to- 
gether; the sacs under the eyes fill up, and swellings are 
caused which disfigure the head ; the poison which is pro- 
duced by the growth of the microbe beneath the false mem- 
branes is absorbed and affects the nervous system, causing 
dullness, depression, and sleepiness. The affected bird 
stands with the neck extended and the beak open to facilitate 
the entrance of air into the lungs, and from the corners of the 
mouth there hang strings of thick, tenacious, grayish mucus. 
A characteristic disagreeable odor appears when the mem- 
branes begin to form, and as they increase in mass it becomes 
much stronger and by the time the birds are in the condition 
described above it is very objectionable. 

At this time, which may be three to five days from the ap- 
pearance of the first symptoms, the condition is very serious. 
Swallowing is difficult or impossible ; the breathing is so 
obstructed that hardly sufficient air can be inhaled to sup- 
port life ; the head is swollen ; the eyes are nearly or entirely 
closed ; the feathers of the head, neck, and breast are foul 
with decomposing secretions from the nostrils and mouth ; 
there is considerable fever ; an exliausting diarrhea sets in ; 
there is rapid loss of weight ; the comb and wattles become 
pale and cold ; the temperature of the body finally sinks 
below the normal ; and death soon follows. 

When false membranes form in the gullet, crop, and 
intestines, there is a rapid aggravation of the symptoms, 
an intense diarrhea, and the escape of blood with the 
droppings. This type of the disease is more frequent 
with water fowl than other birds. Some fowls in a flock 
are resistant, and after a few days of illness make a rapid 
recovery. Others remain dull, weak, and thin in flesh, and 



168 Diseases of Poultry 

may have more or less catarrh and difficulty of breathing 
for a long time. 

Etiology. — The cause of this disease like that of nasal 
roup is still a disputed question.^ All of the organisms re- 
ported as causing the former disease have also been credited 
by one or another investigator with producing diphtheritic 
roup also. Whatever the nature of the causal organism the 
disease is certainly strictly contagious. It never appears 
except as a result of infection from a previous case. 

Methods of Infection. — Birds may be infected by polluted 
food, drinking water or litter and probably also by dust con- 
taining particles of the dried secretions. The disease may 
be introduced into a flock by introducing infected stock. 
Occasionally the infection may be carried on implements or 
on the shoes of persons coming from infected yards. The 
first symptoms appear in from three to five days after ex- 
posure to contagion. 

Treatment. — The best treatment is of course prevention. 
The same safe-guards suggested under nasal roup are also 
effective against diphtheria. 

Two general lines of treatment for diphtheritic roup have 
been used with more or less success. (1) Local treatment of 
the diseased parts with disinfectants, and (2) vaccine and 
serum treatments. The cost of application of either of these 
makes them at present economically inadvisable for ordinary 
stock. 

(1) Disinfectant Method. — In early stages of the disease 
the painting of the diphtheritic patches with tincture of 
iodine is sometimes sufficient. If the false membranes per- 
sistently reappear, as they are very likely to do, they may be 
burned away with 50 to 75 per cent hydrochloric acid or with 
silver nitrate. Great care should be taken not to touch un- 

1 Cf. references cited supra, p. 160. 



Diseases of the Ilespiratorij System 169 

affected parts of the mucous membrane as such wounds are 
Hkely to be infected and thus become the seat of fresh patches. 
After thick false membranes are formed it is necessary to re- 
move them gently before applying the disinfectants. After 
the drastic disinfectants have been applied to the lesions the 
throat, mouth and head passages may be disinfected with 
one of the reagents recommended for catarrh or nasal roup. 
The potassium permanganate treatment outlined on page 163 
is the easiest to apply. 

Some workers have used a spray of oil of thyme, oil of 
eucalyptus or kerosene oil and have reported favorably. 
Reidenbach ^ tested a large number of antiseptics against 
fowl diphtheria, among which were 50 essential oils. He 
found that ajowan oil possesses the strongest antiseptic 
action. This oil is obtained from the fruit of Ptychotis coptica, 
an annual plant wdiich resembles caraw^ay and has for its 
habitat Egypt, Persia and the East Indies. This oil is on 
the market in this country but is not ordinarily carried by 
druggists. 

All of these local treatment methods are unsatisfactory in 
most cases because the germs causing the disease are em- 
bedded deep down in the tissue underlying the false mem- 
branes. It is therefore very difficult thoroughly to disinfect 
the lesions. The tissues injured by strong disinfectants 
seem especially adapted for the propagation of the surviving 
pathogenic organism. 

(2) Vaccine and Serum Treatments. — An attack of avian 
diphtheria confers an immunity, the duration of which de- 
pends in part at least upon the severity of the attack." The 
fact of this acquired immunity suggests the possibility of 
establishing an immunity with vaccine and of treating the 
disease with vaccine or serum. Within the last fifteen years 

1 Reidenbach, J., Geflugel Zlg. (Leipzig), Bd. 26, p. 116, 1910. 
" Sigwart, H., loc. cit. 



170 Diseases of Poultry 

a number of experiments in this line have been conducted both 
in this country and Europe. Some workers have tried as a 
curative agent the antitoxin prepared for human diphtheria. 
Others have used serum prepared from small mammals and 
fowls which have recovered from the disease. Still others 
have attempted to establish an immunity in healthy fowls 
and also to cure diseased birds with vaccines prepared from 
cultures of the organisms isolated from the lesions. Dif- 
ferent investigators disagree as to the effectiveness of each of 
these methods of treatment. The disagreement of their 
results may be due to the variation in virulence of the cul- 
tures with which they worked. 

Hopeful results have been lately obtained in this country 
at Ohio State University and at Purdue. The following 
brief account of the preparation of the vaccine and the method 
of treatment used successfully at Purdue and on nearby farms 
is given by Philips.^ 

"Cures and methods of cure for roup are so varied and 
uniformly unsatisfactory that it was thought advisable to 
experiment with roup vaccine. This vaccine was first made 
at Ohio State University and proved reasonably satisfactory 
to them. 

"The method of making vaccine is very simple. The 
first process is to take cultures from under the ulcers and 
grow them from 24 to 36 hours on neutral agar at a tempera- 
ture of 37.5 degrees C. Then wash off the organisms in a 
sterile normal salt solution and attenuate them for an hour 
and a half in a water bath at 64 degrees C. If the vaccine is 
to be left standing it is advisable to make it one-half per cent 
acid with carbolic acid, as this acts as a preservative. 

"The method of standardization is the most difficult part 

1 Philips, A. G., "A Preliminary Investigation with Roup." Jour, 
of the Arner. Assoc, of Inst, and Invest, in Poultry Husbandry, Vol. 1, 
No. 4, pp. 28-31, 1915. 



Diseases of the Respiratory System 171 

and requires accuracy and careful manipulation, but after 
one becomes accustomed to it he can standardize by the tur- 
bidity of the vaccine with enough accuracy to be correct as 
is needed to be used on chickens. The turbidity may be 
compared to that of two drops of milk in ten cubic centi- 
meters of distilled water. 

"The average dose is one cubic centimeter given sub- 
cutaneously with a hypodermic syringe. The most con- 
venient place to inject the vaccine is under the skin over the 
region of the breast. This need not be repeated in immuniz- 
ing healthy birds, but in treating sick birds a second or third 
injection may be necessary every five days." 

This method of treatment is not yet on a secure scientific 
basis and it cannot be used in practice by the poultryman or 
farmer until all doubt of its efficiency is removed and a 
reliable vaccine prepared and put on the market. If this is 
ever accomplished, treatment with vaccine will be much 
cheaper to administer and much more efficient than the local 
disinfection of lesions. 

Prognosis. — In very acute cases death may occur in two 
or three days. More often even in fatal cases the disease 
runs for two or three weeks. Recovery may be complete in 
two or three weeks or an individual may develop a chronic 
form of the disease which continues for several months. If 
untreated about half of the birds which contract the disease 
die. 

Pip {Inflammation of the Mouth) 

The term " pip" as used by poultrymen evidently does not 
represent a separate disease but is the result of mouth breath- 
ing due to closure of the nostrils by cold or catarrh. The 
mucous membrane of the mouth and tongue become hard and 
dry. This is especially true at the end of the tongue. Mucous 
discharge from the mouth often collects and dries on to this 



172 Diseases of Poultry 

hardened skin at the tip of the tongue. Thus scab may crack 
partly away from the tongue exposing a raw surface. 

Etiology. — It would appear to be the case that the symp- 
toms above described originated from different causes in dif- 
ferent cases. The trouble may be due to specific infection, 
though a particular organism has not yet been definitely iso- 
lated as the cause. In some cases the symptom is apparently 
purely physiological, arising from a failure of the mucus- 
secreting glands to function properly, owing to a lowered 
physiological condition. 

Treatment. — The essential points in the treatment of this 
diseased condition is first to treat the primary cause (cold, 
catarrh, etc.). In removing the scale or " pip" gentle meas- 
ures are to be followed, otherwise a raw surface likely to 
ulcerate, will be left. It is better to keep the scab wet with 
an equal mixture of glycerine and water. If the scab comes 
off leaving a raw surface this should be treated with disin- 
fecting solutions (see p. 168) and then with glycerine. 

Prognosis. — Pip is associated with diseases of the respira- 
tory organs which are often serious and sometimes fatal. It 
is this association which is responsible for the general belief 
that it is a dangerous malady. In itself it is not serious 
unless the mucous membrane is torn away with the scab and 
the wound becomes infected. 

Canker 

Membranes formed in diphtheritic roup are sometimes 
called canker, but there are frequently found cheesy patches 
on the mucous membrane of the mouth or tongue which are 
not associated with roup. These growths are frequently, at 
least, the result of a traumatic injury to the membrane. 
Male birds frequently have canker where they have been 
picked in the mouth by other males when fighting. The 



Diseases of the Respiratory System 173 

growths are made up almost entirely of pus germs. These 
growths should probably be considered as suppurating 
wounds. An unhealthy condition of the mucous membrane 
of the mouth due to digestive disorders is sometimes accom- 
panied by spots of canker. 

A good treatment for canker is undiluted creolin applied 
with a cotton swab. The swab should be held against 
each sore for a short time. The whole surface of each patch 
should be treated. Another good treatment is to wash the 
sores with hydrogen peroxide 1 part and water 1 part. 

Thrush 

This term is also sometines incorrectly applied to the false 
membranes of diphtheria, but there are at least two cases of 
true thrush on record. That is, in two cases microscopic 
examination has shown that the patches, which in both these 
cases were in the lower part of the esophagus and crop, were 
made up of spores and filaments of the fungus Saccharomyces 
albicans. This fungus causes thrush in children and calves. 
This disease may also occasionally affect the mouth. It is 
impossible to distinguish it from other diseases causing simi- 
lar formations except by microscopic examination. The 
treatment is the same as for canker. 

Aspergillosis {Mycosis of the Air Passages) 

This is a very common disease of poultry, often mistaken 
for tuberculosis. In adult fowls it is a frequent cause of the 
condition known as "going light," while in young chickens 
it probably ranks next to white diarrhea as a lethal agent. 

The discussion of this disease here relates primarily to 
adult fowls. Aspergillosis in young chicks is treated in 
Chapter XIX. 



174 Diseases of Poultry 

Diagnosis. — In early stages of the disease the bird appears 
normal. Later there is a loss of appetite and an abnormal 
thirst. The bird becomes inactive, standing with head 
down, eyes closed, wings dropped and plumage roughened. 
There is an increase in the rate of respiration and a rise in 
body temperature. The breathing becomes labored and is 
accompanied by a rattling sound caused by the vibration of 
the mucus which collects in the trachea and bronchi. Diar- 
rhea sets in. The bird becomes emaciated. Death from 
toxsemia, exhaustion or sometimes from asphyxiation may 
occur in from 1 to 8 weeks. 

Two types of lesions are found at autopsy. The first type 
is whitish or greenish yellow membranous patches on the 
mucous lining of the air passages. They are most often found 
in the trachea, bronchi, small passages of the lungs and large 
air sacs. Occasionally they also occur on the walls of the 
air sacs in the interior of the bones. Lameness with swollen 
and inflamed joints results from this condition. They are 
also sometimes found upon the mucous membranes of the 
alimentarv' canal. The mucous membrane underneath these 
patches is thickened and inflamed. The patch itself is a 
thick, fibrous, membrane-like mass which contains fungal 
filaments. These filaments bear spores at the surface of the 
false membranes. Li fact these patches represent the free 
growth of the mold on the surface of the mucous membrane, 
having very much the appearance which it presents when 
growing outside of the body on dead organic matter. The 
greenish color of the diseased area is due to the greenish fila- 
ments of the mold or fungus growing upon its surface. The 
filaments are not all on the surface, however, but they pene- 
trate deeply into the tissues, causing inflammation and swell- 
ing, which obstructs the respiration, and at the same time 
they apparently produce a poison, which causes the general 
depression and fever. 



Diseases of the Respiratory Syste))i. 175 

Lesions of the second type are whitish or yellowish tuber- 
cles resembling the tubercles of tuberculosis. They vary in 
size from the head of a pin to a large pea. The tubercles are 
embedded in the tissues of the walls of the air passages, in 
the lungs and sometimes also in the liver, spleen and kid- 
neys. Each tubercle contains a growth of mold at the cen- 
ter which is inclosed by a wall of animal cells. 

A certain diagnosis of aspergillosis requires the identifica- 
tion of fungus filaments and spores within the lesions. 
This is of course impossible during the life of the bird. 

Etiology. — The disease is caused by molds of the genus 
Aspergillus which grow on the mucous membrane of the air 
passage. The four parasitic species in order of their impor- 
tance are Aspergillus f urn igatus, Aspergillus nigrescens, Asper- 
gillus glaucus, Aspergillus candidus. The appearance of one 
of these molds, when greatly magnified, is shown in Fig. 32. 

These molds and their spores occur on dead organic ma- 
terial like straw, grain, etc. They are inhaled in breathing or 
swallowed with the food. This being the case the importance 
of avoiding musty litter, and moldy or musty grain of all 
kinds is apparent. As with most other diseases the resistance 
of the individual against infection is here an important mat- 
ter. Some fowls will be able to stand musty litter and grain 
without any harm, while others will promptly develop asper- 
gillosis. When once present in a flock aspergillosis is prob- 
ably transmitted from generation to generation through the 
eggs. 

Treatment. — The disease is prevented by having clean, 
dry, well ventilated houses and avoiding the use of moldy 
litter or grain. Vigorous birds under sanitary conditions are 
fairly resistant. 

Since the disease probably sometimes spreads from bird to 
bird, affected individuals should be killed or isolated and the 
bodies of dead birds burned. Salmon savs that "sometimes 



176 



Diseases of Poultry 



affected birds may be saved by applying flowers of sulphur 
or tincture of iodine to the diseased patches seen in the mouth 



S- 









'J^^M-':.- 



m. 



■r-^^ 











.^Bg^-^* 



■^B' 



:F 



Fig. 32. — Aspergillus fumigatus. Greatly enlarged. (After Mohler and 

Buckley.) 

and throat, and causing the birds to inhale the vapor of tar 
water or turpentine. Tar water is obtained by stirring 
2 tablespoonfuls of wood tar in a quart of warm water and 
letting the mixture stand for a few hours. Then the birds 



Diseases of the Respiratory System 177 

are taken into a closed room, where the tar water is poured, 
a small quantity at a time, on a hot brick or stone until the 
atmosphere of the room is well charged with the vapor." 

This treatment is of value only when the lesions are of the 
open type first described and when these are located in parts 
of the air passages accessible to the fungicides. 

Prognosis. — The disease in adult fowls is ordinarily not 
recognized as such until an affected bird comes to autopsy, 
at which time the prognosis is certainly extremely unfavor- 
able. So far as concerns ridding a poultry plant of the dis- 
ease, however, the outlook is favorable if energetic sanitary 
measures along the lines indicated above are applied. 

Congestion of the Lungs 

Congestion of the lungs is a distention of the blood vessels 
which make up the vascular portion of those organs. The 
pressure of these distended vessels may close the smaller air 
passages, or a vessel may burst, filling the bronchi. In either 
case the patient soon suffocates. 

Diagnosis. — The symptoms of this disease are difficult 
rapid breathing, sleepiness and an indisposition to move. A 
bloody mucus sometimes flows from the mouth. The comb is 
dark red or bluish from lack of oxygen in the blood. Symp- 
toms appear suddenly and death occurs within a few hours. 

Etiology. — This disease is caused by chilling the surface of 
the body. This contracts the surface vessels and a large 
volume of blood is sent to the internal organs. The pressure 
on the small elastic vessels of the lungs is too great and they 
either close the air passages by pressing against them or the 
vessel walls are ruptured by the internal pressure and the air 
passages become filled with blood. This disease most often 
occurs in denuded birds (hens during molting or young birds 
which have failed to feather out) or small chicks which have 



178 Diseases of Poultry 

been exposed to cold or allowed to run out in cold, wet 
weather. 

Treatment. — The rapid course of the disease makes treat- 
ment impracticable. Prevention is the only cure. Birds 
should be well nourished with plenty of green food and should 
be especially protected from cold and wet when molting. 
Also chicks which are in a stage between down (chick) and 
Juvenal feathers need special protection. This disease often 
attacks brooder chicks and indicates something wrong with 
the brooding. The cause should be immediately sought out 
and removed, or considerable loss will follow from continued 
exposure of the flock. 

Prognosis. — This disease is usually fatal in a few minutes 
or hours after its symptoms are noted. According to Salmon 
the patient sometimes develops pneumonia. 

Pneumo?na 

This disease is a step beyond congestion of the lungs. The 
vessel are not only distended but liquid escapes through their 
walls and coagulates in the air spaces. The lung of a chick 
dead of pneumonia is dark colored and firm and heavier than 
water. A normal lung floats but a lung filled with this coagu- 
lated serum sinks. 

Diagnosis. — The symptoms resemble those of congestion 
of the lungs. The bird stands with its head drawn back, its 
wings down, and its plumage ruffled. The comb is usually 
very dark. Respiration is rapid, labored and apparently 
painful. There is a loss of appetite, and abnormal thirst 
and constipation. A thick, adhesive, and often bloody 
mucus is sometimes discharged from the nostrils and mouth. 
In such cases there is usually coughing. 

Post-mortem examination shows that either the bronchi 
are nearly filled with thick mucus or the smaller air passages 



Diseases of the Respiratory System 179 

of the lungs are filled with clotted serum. The first form of 
the disease is called broncho-pneumonia. In these cases 
death from suft'ocation has taken place while the vascular 
area of the lungs is little affected. This is the form of the 
disease which usually follows bronchitis. There is usually 
also some clotted serum in the smaller passages. The second 
form is known as croupous pneumonia. This form usually 
follows congestion of the lungs and often develops very soon 
after severe chilling. The lungs are dark in color and solid. 
The blood vessels are filled with blood and the air spaces are 
filled with clotted serum. A piece of such a lung will sink 
when dropped into water. 

Etiology. — The cause of pneumonia in birds is not known. 
The similarity of this disease to human pneumonia, both in 
the circumstances of its occurrence and in its lesions, has led 
to the inference that the cause is also similar. The disease is 
probably caused by a bacterium which is very often present 
in the normal air passages but which is harmless except when 
there is congestion. 

Treatment. — Ordinarily it will not be advisable to treat 
this disease. A cure is unusual and involves such an amount 
of care and nursing as to make it a most unprofitable proposition. 
The disease can be guarded against by keeping the flock in 
good condition and preventing exposure. Some cases will 
recover if removed to a warm well ventilated room and fed 
milk or raw eggs supplemented later, if the bird improves, 
with cod liver oil and chopped beef. 

Various medicines, especially stimulants, have been recom- 
mended. One drop of tincture of aconite every two hours 
given in egg or milk is said to relieve the hard breathing. As 
a stimulant 2 drops of spirits of camphor and 10 drops of 
brandy in a teaspoonful of w^arm milk may be given 3 or 4 
times a day. If the comb becomes dark and the bird is 
evidently failing rapidly add one drop of tincture of digitalis 
to the above medicine. 



180 Diseases of Poultry 

To reduce the congested condition of the lungs a counter 
irritation may be applied to the skin of the back over the 
region of the lungs. This may be done by raising up the 
feathers and painting the skin with tincture of iodine. 

Prognosis. — This disease is more easily prevented than 
cured. A number of cases recover if placed in a warm dry 
room. Treatment is of little value. A large percentage of 
the birds die. 

Tuberculosis 

This disease is discussed in Chapter IX. It is primarily 
a disease of the abdominal viscera. Lesions occur also in the 
lungs in about one case in five. The infection of the lungs is 
usually of secondary origin. 

The Air-Sac Mite 

A species of mite (Cytodites nudus) infects the air-sacs and 
bronchi of poultry. 

Diagnosis. — When the birds are not badly infested there 
are no external symptoms. If badly infested the bird may 
become anaemic and listless and finally die of exhaustion. Or, 
if the air passages are seriously obstructed by the collection 
of parasites and mucus, there will be a rattling in the throat 
and coughing, and death may result from suffocation. The 
presence of the parasites is often found only on examination 
of dead birds. They appear as a yellow or white dust, each 
particle of which is a mite. If closely watched the particles 
may be seen to move. 

Etiology. — The mite probably enters the air-sacs by 
crawling in the nostrils and finding its way down the trachea 
and bronchi to the sacs. The parasites are able to live only 
a short time outside the bird's body. The mouth parts of 
these mites are modified into sucking tubes. They attack the 



Diseases of the Respiratory System 



181 



mucous membrane of the air-sacs and bronchi. When the 
number of parasites is small they cause no serious inconven- 
ience to the bird. When there, are a large number present 
they may cause inflammation of the membrane and secretion 
of mucus or they may seriously obstruct the air passages. 

Treatment. — Treatment of infested birds is probably use- 
less. P'eeding sulphur with the food or compelling the birds 
to inhale the fumes of burning sulphur or burning tar or the 
steam of boiling tar water has 
been recommended. 

If a flock is infested with 
this parasite it is best when 
possible to start a new flock 
with incubator chicks raised 
on a new range and carefully 
protected from infection from 
the old flock. Or stock may 
be purchased from an un- 
infested flock. Birds with 
this parasite should not he 
bought or sold for breeding 
or laying purposes, as the 
flock into which they are in- 
troduced will become infested 
from them. Since this parasite cannot live long outside 
the bird's body, the houses, runs, etc., do not remain in- 
fested long after all the diseased birds have been removed. 

Prognosis. — A bird once infected is probably never free 
from the parasite but may live a long time little harmed by 
its presence. 




Fig. 33. — Cytodites nudtis. The 
air-sac mite. Greatly enlarged. 
(After Theobald.) 



CHAPTER XII 

Diseases of the Circulatory System 

There are two classes of diseases treated in this chapter : 
(1) diseases of the organs of circulation (the heart and blood 
vessels), and (2) diseases of the blood. 

diseases of the organs of circulation 

Pericarditis {Infiammation of the Pericardium, Dropsy of the 
Heart Sac) 

This disease is often found associated with other diseases 
of the circulatory system and with diseases of the lungs and 
air-sacs and also with soreness of the joints. 

Diagnosis. — A differential diagnosis of this disease during 
life is not usually possible. Salmon gives the following 
symptoms : " There is great weakness, difficult breathing, 
the head being thrown backwards, and the breath drawn 
through the mouth in order to obtain sufficient air. If 
forced to run the bird soon falls. In a case observed by 
Hill there was tumultuous action of the heart and occasional 
spasms." Examination of a bird dead from this disease 
shows the heart sac full of serous liquid and sometimes the 
cavity is divided by false membranes which may attach to 
the heart as well as to the pericardium. 

Etiology.— The causes of this inflammation are not known. 
It may result from exposure to cold or dampness. 

Treatment. — Treatment is impossible since the disease 

182 



Diseases of the Circulatory System 183 

cannot he diagnosed until after death. Successive cases 
in the same flock indicate exposure of the flock to cold or 
wet weather or to confining the birds in insanitary houses. 
These conditions should be remedied. Salmon also recom- 
mends in such cases " 2 to 4 grains of bicarbonate of soda to 
each bird daily in the drinking Avater." 

Endocarditis {hiflammation of the Internal Membranes of the 

Heart) 

In the examination of dead birds it is sometimes found 
that the membrane lining the heart is reddened and coagu- 
lated lymph may adhere to it. Little is known of this dis- 
ease in fowls. It cannot be distinguished from pericarditis 
except by an examination of the heart. The cause and treat- 
ment suggested for that disease probably apply equally in 
these cases. 

Myocardit is d ip hi her it ica 

According to Ziirn, Bollinger has described a bacterial 
disease of the heart and blood vessels of fowls and pigeons. 
The disease is caused by a bacterium which resembles the 
bacterium of roup. The disease attacks the lining mem- 
brane of the heart and blood vessels, causing inflammation 
and the breaking down of the tissue. It especially affects 
the valves of the heart and aorta, where round or oval 
colonies of the bacteria are found on the membrane. In 
these patches fibrin and red and white corpuscles are mingled 
with the organisms. The walls of the small vessels of the 
lungs, liver, spleen, kidneys and intestines are also affected. 
The liver, spleen, and kidneys are enlarged. The bacteria 
are numerous in these organs as well as in the blood. 

Little is known of the frequence of the occurrence of this 
disease and nothing of methods of treatment. 



184 Diseases of Poultry 

Enlargement of the Heart (Hypertrophy) 

The heart of a fowl is sometimes enlarged. According to 
Cadeac this enlargement most frequently affects the right 
side of the heart. The muscle may be fatty and degenerate. 

Diagnosis. — The distinctive symptom of this disease is 
a very rapid beating of the heart. 

Etiology. — The cause of this hypertrophy of the heart 
muscle is not known, but it is probably due to some derange- 
ment in the nutrition of the muscle. The palpitations are 
increased by excitement or fright. 

Treatment. — The disease is not usually recognized while 
the bird is alive. Treatment is therefore not possible. 

Prognosis. — A hypertrophied heart may function for a 
long time. The violent beating may cause rupture of a 
blood vessel ; sometimes several vessels are ruptured at 
the same time. 



Rupture of the Heart and Large Blood Vessels 

Internal hemorrhage due to the rupture of the heart or 
large blood vessels often occurs in full blooded fowls. 

Diagnosis. — The bird becomes weak and drowsy, passes 
into a comatose condition and dies with the characteristic 
appearance associated with bleeding to death. 

Etiology. — In full blooded fowls any excitement or over- 
exertion which causes an increase in the rate of heart beat 
and an increased blood pressure may result in a rupture of 
the heart or one of the large vessels. 

Treatment. — The accident cannot be predicted and treat- 
ment is impossible. 

Prognosis. — The bird dies in a short time. 



Diseases of the Circulatory System 185 

Thrombosis 

This disease is characterized by the clotting of the blood 
in the great blood vessels and sometimes also in the heart. 
Sometimes the corpuscles settle out of the serum so that a 
part of the clot is clear. 

Diagnosis. — This condition is not capable of diagnosis 
except at autopsy. Birds which show this condition, how- 
ever, are often those which have been sick several weeks. 
They are usually in poor flesh and a gradual loss of appetite 
is often noted for some weeks before death occurs. 

Etiology. — The cause of this disease is unknown. 

Treatment. — As the disease is only recognized at autopsy 
no treatment is possible. 

Leukcemia 

Various cases of an alteration in the number of white 
corpuscles in the blood of fowls have been described. Ac- 
cording to Warthin ^ in normal hen's blood the proportion 
of red blood corpuscles to white is 105-225 : 1, and only 1-1 
per cent of the white cells are large lymphocytes, while in 
leukaemia of fowls the proportion of red to white cells may 
be less than 2 to 1 and a differential count of the white cells 
shows that there may be 84.5 per cent large lymphocytes. 
The tissue changes consist in tumorous nodules and infiltra- 
tion of lymphoid cells in the liver, spleen, bone marrow and 
other organs. 

From the literature it appears that investigators have 
found several different blood diseases which show the blood 
picture described above. Hirschfeld and Jacoby ^ and 

1 Warthin, A. S., " Leukemia of the Common Fowl." Jour. 
Infect. Diseases, Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 369-381, 1907. 

2 Hirschfeld, H., and Jacoby, M., Berlin. Klin. Wchnschr. 
Bd. 46, pp. 159, 160, 1909. 



186 Diseases of Poultry 

Burckhardt ^ have found such a condition associated with 
the presence of tubercle bacilH in the blood. • This was found 
both in spontaneous and experimental cases of tuberculosis. 

Ellerman and Bang - found this condition in cases which 
were transmissible to other fowls by a filterable virus in- 
jected intravenously. This disease ran a chronic course. 
The typical leukaemic condition was reached about three 
months after the inoculation. 

The only disease of this group which seems to be of any 
economic importance is infectious leuktemia or fowl typhoid, 
first described by Moore.^ The relation of this disease to 
human typhoid is discussed on page 111. 

Infectious Leukoeviia or Fowl Typhoid 

This is a bacterial disease often mistaken for fowl cholera 
but caused by a different species of bacteria and the lesions 
produced are somewhat different. 

Diagnosis. — The following symptomatology is quoted 
from Moore : " From the statement of the owners of the 
fowls in the different outbreaks and from the appearance of 
those in which the disease was artificially produced, little 
can be positively recorded concerning the distinctive or 
characteristic symptoms. The only fowl examined ante- 
mortem from the natural outbreaks was first seen only a 
few hours before death, when it was unable to stand. If 
held in an upright position, the head hung down. There 
was a marked anaemic condition of the mucosa of the head. 

^Burckhardt, J. L., Ztschr. Immunitdtsf. u. Expt. Ther. Bd. 
14, pp. 544-604, 1912. 

2 Ellerman, V., and Bang, O., Ztschr. Hyg. u. Infektionskrank. 
Bd. 63, pp. 231-272, 1909. 

^ Moore, V. A., "Infectious Leukoemia in Fowls — a Bacterial 
Disease Frequently Mistaken for Cholera." Ann. Rept. Bur. An. 
Ind., 1895-1896, pp. 185-205. 



Diseases of the Circulatory System 187 

It had an elevation of nearly 3 degrees of temperature. An 
examination of the blood showed a marked diminution in 
the niunber of red corpuscles and an increase in the number 
of white ones. In the disease produced artificially by feed- 
ing cultures of the specific organism there was in most cases 
a marked drowsiness and general debility manifested from 

1 to 4 days before death occurred. The period during which 
the prostration was complete varied from a few hours to 
two days. The mucous membranes and skin about the 
head became pale. There was an elevation of from 1 to 4 
degrees of temperature. The fever was of a continuous type. 

"Although the course of the disease in the different fowls 
was usually constant, there were many variations. In a 
few individuals the time required for fatal results was from 

2 to 3 weeks, but ordinarily death occurred in about 8 days 
after feeding the virus, the rise in temperature being detected 
about the third day and external symptoms about the fifth 
or sixth, occasionally not until a few hours before death. 
The symptoms observed in the cases produced by feeding 
correspond with those described by the owners of affected 
flocks." 

Moore found the only constant lesions to be in the blood 
and liver. The change in the blood as noted above was a 
decrease in the number of red and an increase in the num- 
ber of white cells. The change in the liver is described by 
Moore as follows : 

"The liver was somewhat enlarged and dark colored, 
excepting in a few cases in which the disease was produced 
by intravenous injections. A close inspection showed the 
surface to be sprinkled with minute grayish areas. The 
miscroscopic examination showed the blood spaces to be 
distended. The hepatic cells were frequently changed, so 
that they stained ver;s' feebly, and not infrequently the cells 
were observed in which the liver cells appeared to be dead 



188 



Diseases of Poultry 



and the intervening spaces infiltrated with round cells. The 
changes in the hepatic tissue are presumably secondary to 
the engorgement of the organ with blood." 

Dawson's diagnosis of the disease (An. Rep. Bur. An. 
Ind., 1898, p. 350) differs somewhat from the one given by 
Moore. 

It is very difficult to distinguish this disease from fowl 
cholera except by identifying the bacteria which produce 
the diseases. Moore contrasts the characteristic lesions in 
the appended columns : 



Fowl cholera 

1. Duration of the disease 

from a few hours to 
several days. 

2. Elevation of temperature. 

3. Diarrhea. 

4. Intestines deeply reddened. 

5. Intestinal contents liquid, 

muco-purulent, or blood 
stained. 

6. Heart dotted with eechy- 

moses. 



Lungs affected, hypersemic 
or pneumonic. 

Specific organisms appear 
in large numbers in the 
blood and organs. 

Blood pale (cause not deter- 
mined). 



9. 



10. 



Condition of leucocytes not 
determined. 



Infectious leukcemia 

1. Duration of the disease 

from a few hours to 
several days. 

2. Elevation of temperature. 

3. Diarrhea very rare. 

4. Intestines pale. 

5. Intestinal contents normal 

in consistency. 

6. Heart usually pale and 

dotted with grayish 
points, due to ceU in- 
filtration. 

7. Lungs normal, excepting in' 

modified cases. 

8. Specific organisms compara- 

tively few in the blood 
and organs. 

9. Blood pale, marked 

diminution in the num- 
ber of red corpuscles. 
10. Increase in the number of 
leucocytes. 



Attention should be called to the fact that as yet there 
seems not to have been a careful study of the condition of 
the blood in fowl cholera. Salmon observed many changes 



Diseases of the Circulatory System 189 

in this fluid which may have been similar to or identical 
with those herein recorded. 

On page 201 of Moore's paper he gives the method of differ- 
entiating the two bacteria. This is, of course, dependent on 
microscopic examination and cultural tests. A full descrip- 
tion of Bacterium sanguinarium is given by Moore on pages 
188-191 of the paper cited above. 

Etiology. — The disease is caused by a non-motile, rod- 
shaped bacterium {Bacterium sanguiiiarium). This bacte- 
rium causes the disease when injected into the blood or 
when fed. In a few cases fowls are known to have con- 
tracted the disease by picking up the droppings of infected 
fowls. 

Moore says : "This disease of fowls has not been found in 
flocks where a good sanitary regime has been enforced. It 
is highly probable that it is a filth disease, being dependent 
upon unfavorable environments quite as much as the specific 
organism for the ability to run a rapidly fatal course and of 
spreading to the entire flock." 

Treatment. — Prevention is the only known treatment. 
A maintenance of generally sanitary conditions and the 
avoidance of the introduction of diseased birds are eft'ectual. 
If the disease appears in the flock separate the diseased birds, 
disinfect the premises, and place the flock under sanitary 
conditions. The disease will probably disappear, as it is 
difficult experimentally to maintain an infection when the 
birds are kept under sanitary conditions. 

Prognosis. — Diseased birds usually die in from a few 
hours to two weeks, but they may recover. 

The Sleepy Disease {Apoplectiform septiccemia) 

This parasitic blood disease is apparently rare. 
Diagnosis. — The most striking symptom is sleepiness. 



190 Diseases of Poultry 

According to Dammaiin and Manegold ^ the affected fowls 
show a roughness of plumage, swollen eyes, paleness of the 
comb and lameness. At autopsy symptoms of hemor- 
rhagic septicaemia are found. The musculature is permeated 
with bloody effusions and red spots are observed in the 
mucous membrane of the intestines. The spleen is con- 
siderably enlarged and hemorrhagic patches were observed 
in other parts of the body. 

Etiology. — According to Dammann and Manegold this 
disease is caused by a capsule bearing streptococcus (Strepto- 
coccus capsulatus gallinarum) . The organism is present both 
in the blood and the infected organs. The disease may be 
readily transmitted by inoculation of virulent blood to 
other chickens. The incubation period varies from 6 to 
14 days and the course of the disease from 1 to 3 weeks. It 
is not known how the disease is naturally transferred from 
one bird to another. 

Treatment. — No treatment is known except the main- 
tenance of general sanitary conditions. 

Syirochoetosis 

This disease has not yet been reported in this country. 
It is known in South America, Europe, Africa and Australia. 
It may exist in this country undistinguished from fowl 
cholera. 

Diagnosis. — There is a dullness, loss of appetite and thirst. 
The birds stand with head and. tail down and eyes closed 
as in Fig. 34. 

There is a rise of temperature. Diarrhea is present. 
There is a pronounced anaemia. Post-mortem examination 

1 Dammann, C, and Manegold, O., Deut. Tierarztl. Wchnschr. 
Vol. 13, pp. 577-579, 1905. And Archiv Wiss. u. Prakt. Tier- 
heilk. Bd. 33, 41-70, 1907. 



Diseases of the Circulatory System 



191 



shows enlargement of liver and spleen. The crisis of the 
disease occurs on the fourth or fifth day. In fatal cases the 
fever disappears and the temperature sinks to below normal 
shortly before death. 

Etiology. — This disease is caused by a spirochaete {Spiro- 
choBta gallinarum) found in the blood and in the liver and 
spleen. According to Balfour ^ the parasitic organisms 




Fig. 34. — Bird suffering from spirochsetosis. (From Kolle and Hetsch.) 



enter the blood corpuscles. Both the organisms and the 
corpuscles then degenerate. According to Lounoy and 
Bruhl - the number of erythrocytes may be reduced one- 
half in five daj^s. A favorable turn at the crisis of the dis- 
ease is due, according to Levaditi and Manouclian,^ to the 

^Balfour, A. S., "Spirochsetosis of Sudanese Fowls — an After 
Phase." Jour. Trop. Med. and Hyg., Vol. 11, p. 37, 1908. 

2 Lounoy, L., and Bruhl, M. L., Ann. Inst. Pasteur, T. 28, pp. 
517-539, 1914. 

^ Levaditi and Manouclian, Ann. Inst. Pasteur. T. 20, pp. 
593-600, 1906. 



192 



Diseases of Poultry 



destruction of the parasites by the large leucocytes of the 
spleen and liver. The organisms are carried from one fowl 
to another by the tick Argas (see p. 228). According to 
von Prowazek ^ the tick is a true intermediary host, the 
organisms appearing in the salivary glands about 14 days 




Fig. 35. — Fowl spirochsetosis. (From KoUe and Ketch, after Burri.) 



after infection. The organisms may live in the body of 
the tick for seven or eight months. That the tick is not a 
necessary host is shown by the fact that injection of the 

1 Von Prowazek, S., Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz. T. I, pp. 79- 
80, 1911. 



Diseases of the Circulatory System 193 

blood of an affected fowl can produce the disease in a healthy 
one. 

Treatment. — The disease has been successfully treated 
with atoxyl/ and with salvarsan (606).^ The best treat- 
ment is prevention by keeping the fowls free from ticks. 

Prognosis. — About one-third of the affected fowls re- 
cover if untreated. 

^ Levaditi et Mcintosh, "L'influenee de I'atoxyl sur la spirillose 
provoqueeparle Spirillum gallinarum." Comptes Rendus Soc. Biol., 
T. 62, 1907. 

Uhlenhuth u. Gross, "Untersuchungen iiber die Wirkung des 
Atoxyls auf die Spirillose der Hiihner." Arb. K. GsndhlsamL, 15d, 
27, pp. 231-255, 1907. 

2 Hauer, A., Centbl. Bakt. Bd. 62, pp. 477-496, 1912. 



CHAPTER XIII 

Diseases of the Nervous System 

Apoplexy {Hemorrhage of the Brain) 

In this disease the bird usually drops dead or paralyzed 
without showing any previous sign of illness. The only 
abnormality found on examination of the dead bird is clotted 
blood on the brain. 

Etiology. — The cause of this disease is the rupture of a 
blood vessel in the brain and the pressure on the brain due 
to the blood which escapes. The cause of this rupture may 
be an unhealthy condition (usually a fatty degeneration) of 
the walls of the brain blood vessels. The immediate cause 
of the rupture is increased blood pressure due to fright, over- 
exertion, or strain in laying (hens often die on the nest). 
This disease is more apt to attack very fat birds and the 
degeneration of the vessels is supposed to be due to too rich 
food or to overfeeding. 

Treatment. — Treatment of the affected birds is useless. 
So-called "apoplexy cures," of which there are some on the 
market, should be left strictly alone by the poultryman. 
Only very rarely can apoplexy be recognized till after the 
bird is dead, and then all the pills or potions ever invented for 
the purpose of swindling a gullible public will be of no avail. 
If several successive deaths from apoplexy occur, modify the 
ration, giving more green food and less meat and corn. 
See that the birds have plenty of range. 

Prognosis. — The bird is usually found dead or dies in a 
little while. 

194 



Diseases of the Nervous System 195 

Heat Prostrations 

In very warm weather heat prostrations may occur, 
especially among heavy fowls. This is sometimes considered 
to be the same thing as apoplexy. The birds suddenly drop 
insensible or paralyzed. 

Etiology. — The cause is pressure on the brain, due to heat, 
but the blood vessels are not ruptured as in apoplexy. 

Treatment. — Mild cases may be treated by applying cold 
water to the head and keeping the bird in a cool, quiet place. 

Prognosis. — Mild cases may recover. Others usually 
result fatally in a short time. As a preventive avoid over- 
crowding in hot weather. If the range is not provided with 
natural shade, supply artificially shaded places in which the 
birds may find protection from the hot sun during the middle 
of the day. 

Congestion of the Brain {Vertigo, Cerebral Hypercemia) 

A number of abnormal physiological conditions may lead to 
a congestion of blood in the brain. This is usually associated 
with a diseased condition of other organs, and hence often 
occurs as a complication with other diseases. It is some- 
times due to injury of the head. 

Diagnosis. — Pearson and Warren ^ give the following 
diagnosis of this disease : " It is characterized by stagger- 
ing, stupor, unusual movements such as walking backward 
or walking in a circle, unusual and irregular movements with 
the wings and feet and twisting the head backward or to the 
side. Sometimes the bird will fall on its side and make 
peculiar movements with its feet and wings as though 
attempting to run or fly." 

1 Pearson and Warren, "Diseases and Enemies of Poultry." 1897. 



19G Diseases of Poultry 

Etiology. — The congestion of the brain is sometimes due to 
blows on the head or to fright or other intense excitement. 
Often it is associated with acute indigestion or with the pres- 
ence of parasitic intestinal worms. 

Treatment. — - Apply cold water to the head. Administer 
a laxative (2 teaspoonfuls of castor oil, or 30 grains of Epsom 
salts given in water or 1^ grains of calomel). Keep the 
fowl in a cool, quiet place. If this treatment is not efficient 
Salmon recommends 1 to 5 grains of bromide of potassium 
dissolved in 1 tablespoonful of water 3 times a day. If 
intestinal worms are found in the droppings after the laxative, 
treat for the removal of these parasites (p. 139). 

Prognosis. — The bird may recover if the cause is removed. 



Epilepsy 

This somewhat rare disease is characterized by occasional 
fits. Between these the birds appear normal. 

Diagnosis. — Pearson ^ describes the behavior of the bird 
during the fit as follows : " The fowl will make beating move- 
ments with its wings, its legs will draw up and it will fall 
down, sometimes turn over on its back, or it may stand 
upright with its legs apart, head turned backward and mouth 
and eyes opening and closing spasmodically." 

This spasm passes away after a time and leaves the bird in 
a normal condition. 

Etiology. — It is often impossible to discover any cause of 
the disease. It is said to be sometimes caused by tumors 
on the brain and sometimes by intestinal worms. 

Treatment. — The only cases that can be treated are those 
caused by the presence of intestinal worms. An affected 
bird should be put up and given a laxative and if intestinal 

1 Loc. cit. 



Diseases of ihc Ncrnoii.s' Sijstem. 197 

worms are passed treat the patient for the removal of these 
parasites (p. 139). 

The birds may Hve some time with occasional fits and may 
recover. Cases caused by intestinal worms are definitely 
cured by removing the parasites. 

Polyneuritis, or Beri-beri 

A nervous disease of fowls resembling human beri-beri is 
known in India, the Philippine Islands and Europe. 

Diagnosis. — The chief symptom is a progressive paralysis 
of the legs. The nerves supplying the affected parts are 
greatly changed, often showing an almost complete disappear- 
ance of nerve fibers. 

Etiology. — It has been known for several years that this 
disease occurs when the diet of chicks or fowls is completely 
or nearly completely confined to rice or other cereals from 
which the outer coat has been removed. If the whole grain 
is fed the disease does not occur. It has been shown that 
this is a triie deficiency disease caused by a diet which lacks 
some substance which is essential for the normal metabolism 
of nervous tissue. The addition of milk, meat, legumes, rice 
polishings, or potatoes to a deficient diet prevents the disease. 
During the last two years Funk ^ and others have studied the 
nature of the substance or substances which must be added to 
the deficient food. They have isolated from rice polishings 
a crystalline alkaloid designated as Funk's base or vitamine. 
According to Vedder and Williams " this " probably exists in 
the food as a pyrimidin base combined as a constituent of 

iFunk, C, "Die Vitamine." Wiesbaden, 1914. 

^Vedder, E. B., and Williams, R. R., "Concerning the Beri-beri 
Preventing Substances or Vitamins Contained in Rice Polishings. 
A Sixth Contribution to the Etiology of Beri-beri." Philippine 
Jour. Sci., Sect. B., Vol. 8, pp. 175-195. 



198 Diseases of Poultry 

nucleic acid but that it is not present in the nucleins of nucleic 
acids that have been isolated by processes involving the use 
of alkalies or heat." 

Treatment. — Prevention is the best treatment. This dis- 
ease can be easily prevented by feeding a rational diet. The 
disease may be cured by feeding rice polishings or an extract 
made from them. It can also be cured by a dose of 30 mg. of 
Funk's base. This is, of course, not available for therapeutic 
purposes. 

Prognosis. — If the cause is not removed the birds die. 
If the food is changed so that it has a sufficient supply of the 
deficient material thev recover. 



CHAPTER XIV 
Diseases of Kidneys, Rheumatism and Limberneck 

In routine autopsy work where all dead birds are examined 
probably no organ except the liver is more frequently found 
in a diseased condition than the kidneys. They are often 
enlarged. Sometimes they contain dark points caused by 
the rupture of small blood vessels, and in other cases they may 
contain abscesses. Micro-organisms have been obtained 
from some cases of diseased kidneys. Nothing is yet known 
of the causes of these specific diseased conditions in poultry. 
Some of the cases of under-development, especially of pullets, 
are apparently due to enlarged kidneys. In such cases the 
birds usually lose their appetite, become emaciated and their 
feathers are roughened. No dependable diagnosis of dis- 
eased kidneys can be made on the living fowl. When several 
cases occur care should be taken to see that the flock receives 
a balanced ration with plenty of green food, as diseased kid- 
neys may occur from too much protein in the food. 

One of the diseased conditions of the kidneys results in an 
inability to eliminate the urates. The uric acid content of the 
blood is greatly increased and the urates are deposited on the 
surface of the visceral organs, in the tissues of the urinary 
apparatus and around the joints in the form of crystals or 
urate of soda. 

Gout 

This diseased condition is called gout. In fowls as in 
man it has two forms, the visceral and the articular, depend- 
ing upon the location of the deposits of urates. 

199 



200 Diseases of Poultry 

Visceral Gout 

In visceral gout the only symptoms shown by an affected 
bird are a loss in weight or " going light" and a slight yellow- 
ish tinge to the skin, comb and wattles. The bird has a good 
and often abnormal appetite. Death occurs suddenly. An 
examination of the abdominal cavity shows that all the organs 
and serous membranes are covered with a chalky or talcum- 
like pow^der. This powder has a mother-of-pearl luster and 
on microscopic examination is seen to be composed of small 
needle-like crystals. These are crystals of urate of soda. 
These crystals are also found in the urinary organs. The 
ureter and collecting tubules are often filled with a mass of 
these crystals. Hebrant and Antoine give the following test 
for the urate of soda. 

Dissolve the crystals in nitric acid and evaporate in a 
watch glass. This gives a red onion peel mass which turns 
purplish blue on the addition of a solution of caustic potash. 

Articular Gout 

In this form of the disease the crystals or urate of soda are 
in nodules around the joints, especially of the feet and toes. 
These nodules sometimes appear like strings of beads on the 
under side of the toes. They contain a white or creamy thick 
liquid composed mostly of the crystals. They are at first 
soft but later become very firm. The presence of the nodules 
causes stiffness and soreness of the joints and the birds become 
indisposed to stand or walk. Sometimes the nodules ulcerate, 
discharging a stringy pus and exposing the cavities of the 
joints to the air. The development of fistulas causes the 
death of the bones. The disease is slow in its development 
and advanced stages are seen only in old birds. The birds 
lose weight and in advanced stages diarrhea sets in and death 
from exhaustion follows. 



Diseases of the Kidneys, Rheumatism and Limherneck 201 

Early stages of this disease are often mistaken for rheuma- 
tism on account of the stiffness and soreness of the joints. 

Etiology. — The cause of this disease is a disturbance of the 
normal physiology of excretion so that the uric acid which 
should be excreted by the kidneys is first retained in the 
blood and then deposited within the body as crystals of 
urate of soda. The disturbance is probably due to a diet 
which is too rich in proteids. It has been experimentally 
produced by feeding meat.^ Beef liver produces the condi- 
tion more quickly than horse meat. 

Treatment. — In case of articular gout Salmon recommends 
rubbing the affected joints with camphorated or carbolic oint- 
ment. In well developed cases it is more profitable to kill the 
birds than to treat them. Visceral gout is not usually recog- 
nized while the bird is alive. Prevention is the only reliable 
treatment for either form of gout. Birds should be kept 
under sanitary conditions and given plenty of green food. 
When several birds develop the disease it is well to give the 
whole flock Epsom salts (^ to 1 teaspoonful per bird) and to 
reduce the amount of meat scrap and increase the quantity 
of green food. 

Prognosis. — The disease, especially the articular form, is 
chronic and advanced cases are only found in old birds. 
Badly diseased birds may live a long time. Mild cases may 
recover on corrected diet. 

Rheumatism 

A lameness or stiffness is usually considered rheumatism. 
Many such cases are due to tuberculosis of the joints (p. 121), 
and others to articular gout, but there are muscular and joint 
inflammations caused by exposure which are properly con- 

1 di Gristiana, G., Internat. Beitr. Path. ri. Ther. Erndhrungsstor. 
Stoffw., Verdauungskrank. Bd. 1, pp. 29-47. 



202 Diseases of Poultry 

sidered rheumatism. This disease is an inflammation of the 
connective tissues of the muscles and joints. 

Etiology. — It is caused by exposure to cold or dampness. 
The occurrence of several cases in the flock indicates some- 
thing wrong in the housing conditions. 

Treatment. — The disease is prevented by keeping the fowls 
in dry, warm, well ventilated houses with well drained runs. 

Prognosis. — Fowls protected from further exposure and 
given a good ration with plenty of green food usually recover. 

Limberneck 

This is not properly a disease but a symptom which accom- 
panies several diseased conditions. A fowl is said to have 
limberneck when partial or entire nervous control of the neck 
muscles is lost. The neck may hang limp so that the head falls 
on the ground between the feet. Sometimes the bird is able 
to raise the head from the ground by making a great effort. 

A bird is sometimes said to have limberneck when the 
dorsal or lateral neck muscles are tense, the head drawn con- 
vulsively backward, but this is more often called "wry-neck." 

Both limberneck and wry-neck are due to nervous disorders 
which arise from several dift'erent causes. "Wry-neck" is 
usually associated with direct brain or nerve irritation and 
occurs in epileptic spasms, but also sometimes is associated 
with rheumatism. Limberneck is usually associated with 
colic, acute indigestion, intestinal parasites, or ptomaine 
poisoning. 

No treatment for limberneck as such can be advised. 
Effort should be made to ascertain and cure the diseased con- 
dition which is responsible for this symptom. 

Cases due to rheumatism, colic, indigestion, intestinal 
parasites, and some of those due to poisoning may recover, 
if the real cause can be ascertained and treated soon enough. 



CHAPTER XV 

External Parasites 

ViciiLANT and continuous attention is necessary to keep 
fowls free from external parasites. At least 32 species of 
arachnids and insects are known to be parasitic on fowls. 
Some of these like the red mites visit their host only to take 
food and spend the rest of the time on the under side of the 
roosts, in cracks and crevices and various other places of 
seclusion. Others like the lice normally stay on the birds, 
although occasionally some individuals crawl off, es})ecially 
into the nest. Some of these parasites live upon the sur- 
face of the skin and upon the feathers, deriving their nourish- 
ment either by sucking the blood like the red mite, or by 
chewing the skin and feathers like the lice and some of the 
mites. Some of the mites, however, bore under the skin, 
causing skin diseases known as scabies or psoric diseases. 
The most common of these diseases are scabby or scaly leg 
and depluming scabies. 

The economic importance of these external parasites is 
very great. Fowls infested with one or several of these 
species of parasites are not profitable. They make a smaller 
growth in the same time with the same food and their egg 
production is not equal to similar birds not so infested. 
Not only are they constantly robbed of some of their tissue 
and blood but their rest is disturbed. Sleep is as important 
to the normal physiology of a bird as it is to that of a man. 

Keeying a PovHry Plant Free from External Parasites. — 
It is not necessary for a poultryman to be able to dis- 

203 



204 Diseases of Poultry 

tinguish the 32 species of parasites or to know their Hfe 
histories in order to keep his plant free from them. It is 
only necessary to know that some of them stay on the birds 
and can only be exterminated by treating the birds, while 
others spend most of their time on the under sides of the 
roosts in cracks and can best be exterminated by contact 
sprays containing cresol or kerosene. A single application 
is not efficient in either case but treatment must be repeated 
2 or 3 times at intervals of a few days to destroy those that 
hatch after the treatment or are concealed beyond its reach. 
A routine procedure by which a poultry plant can be kept free 
from parasites is very useful. The following method has 
proven very successful at the Maine Experiment Station. 

All hatching and rearing of chickens is done in incubators 
and brooders. The growing chickens are never allowed to 
come into any contact whatever with old hens. Therefore, 
when the pullets are ready to go into the laying houses in 
the fall they are free from lice. Sometime in the later 
summer, usually in August or early in September, the lay- 
ing houses are given a thorough cleaning. They are first 
scraped, scoured and washed out with water thrown on the 
walls and floor with as much pressure as possible from a hose. 
They are then given two thorough sprayings, with an inter- 
val of several days intervening, with a solution of cresol 
such as is described in Chapter II. Then the roosting boards, 
nests, floors and walls to a height of about 5 feet are thor- 
oughly sprayed with the lice paint (kerosene oil and crude 
carbolic acid described on page 15). 

For ridding the birds of lice the Maine Station formerly 
recommended dusting two or three times at intervals of 
several days to a week with the lice powder described on 
page 211. All birds which were to be kept over for the next 
year's work were treated in this manner before they were 
put into the cleaned houses. 



External Parasites 205 

During the past few years this Station has adopted another 
method of freeing the birds of Hce, namely the use of mer- 
curial ointment. An ointment has certain very distinct 
advantages over any powder. It is much easier to apply, 
and requires less of the poultryman's time, which is an im- 
portant factor on a large plant. Further a mercurial oint- 
ment is more efficient and lasting in its effect as a parasiticide 
than any powder. 

The form of ointment which we have used is the ammoni- 
ated mercurial ointment U.S. P., with the exception that 
we have the druggist make it with a lard base, instead of 
the lanolin base called for by the Pharmacopoeia. Others 
use the blue ointment of the U.S. P. for the same purpose. 
It is probably more effective, part for part, but it is also 
more expensive. 

The proper method of applying the ointment is to rub 
well on to the skin three pieces of the ointment, each as 
big as a small pea. One of these pieces should be rubbed 
on just under the vent, the other two under the wings. 
The ointment should never be simply daubed on and left 
as a lump. If it is so done, the bird is very liable to get 
some of it in the mouth and a case of mercurial poisoning 
will result. 

As a result of these methods the Station's poultry plant 
is at all times of the year practically free of lice. 

This method keeps the flock free from lice and the mites 
which live upon the surface of the skin, but would not de- 
stroy those mites which penetrate the skin and cause scabies. 
These and other more rare parasites should be destroyed 
when present by special methods. The description of, and 
treatment for, each class of external parasite is given below. 



206 



Diseases of Poultry 



A. LICE (MALL0PIL\GA) 

Lice are probably the most widely distributed parasite of 
poultry. They are so common that flocks of fowls that have 
not been treated to remove lice for a long time are almost 
sure to have one or more species present. At least 8 species 
of hen lice have been found and 5 of these are common. 
Bird lice are quite different from 
those which affect man and mammals. 
The popular notion that lice may 
be transmitted from poultry to other 
animals is quite erroneous. Theobald 
says : " So particular are bird-lice 
that it is quite the exception to find 
one species upon two distinct kinds 
of birds. Fowl-lice will not even at- 
tack the duck nor duck-lice the fowl. 
Nearly every bird has its own partic- 
ular Mallophagan parasite or para- 
sites. They may possibly pass to 
some strange host for a short time, 
but they will not live and breed. 
common Morcovcr, . . . particular species at- 
tack restricted areas on the same 
host and are seldom found in other 
positions." Some of these lice are 
sluggish, nearly stationary, and confined to a restricted area 
of the body, while others are active and crawl over the en- 
tire body. Theobald describes eight species of lice found 
on poultry. 

The most common and widely distributed hen louse 
found in this country is Menopon pallidum. This louse is 
shown in Fig. 36. 
Another species of this genus {Menopon hiseriatum), which 




Fig. 3G. — The 

hen louse {Menopon pal- 
lidum). Greatly enlarged. 
(From Banks.) 



External Parasites 



207 




closely resembles M. pallidum, is also sometimes found. 

These are active lice living on all parts of the body. They 

often crawl on to the hands when handling 

or plucking birds, and may sometimes be 

found in the nests. 

There are several other lice which some- 
times infest poultry. Each of these species 

is confined to a special region of the host. 

Although capable of crawling about, the lice 

of these species for the most part remain 

nearly stationary, often with their heads 

buried in the skin and tlieir bodies erect. 

Two species, Lipeurus variabilis and Lipeu- 

rus heterographus, live among the barbs of 

the wing and tail feathers. Goniodes dis- 

similis is found under the wings and on the 

rump. The appearance of two of the species 
mentioned, viz., Lipeu- 
rus variabilis and Goni^ 
odes dissimilis, is show^n in Figs. 37 
and 38 respectively. 

All true bird lice (Mallophaga) have 
biting, not piercing mouth parts. They 
live upon fragments of feathers, scales 
of the skin and other such debris. It 
is evident from the action of infested 
birds that these parasites cause con- 
siderable pain and itching. This must 
be particularly true when they are 
present in large numbers. 

Life-history of Lice. — All the lice 
breed fairly rapidly. The eggs or nits 

are laid upon the down feathers, as a rule ; they are often 

beautifully sculptured objects, oval in form. In about 6 



Fig. 37. — Lipeu- 
rus variabilis. 
A louse that 
infests poul- 
try. Much en- 
larged. (From 
Banks, after 
Denny.) 




Fiu. 38. — Goniodes dis- 
similis, a louse that 
infests poultry. Much 
enlarged. (From 
Banks, after Denny.) 



208 



Diseases of Poultry 



to 10 days they hatch into small, pale, active lice, which 
at once commence to irritate the birds. The adults are 
occasionally found in the nests. Some species are found 
copulating in the nests, others always on the birds. They 
live a considerable time. Menopon pallidum (Fig. 36) 
has been kept alive for months upon fresh feathers, the 
quill epidermis being especially eaten. Before reaching the 




Fig. 39. 



Feathers showing eggs or "nits" of the common hen louse. 
EnLarged. (Original.) 



full-grown state as many as 10 or 12 molts apparently take 
place, there being little difference in each stage, except the 
gradual darkening of the markings. 

The eggs or nits of hen lice are shown in Fig. 39. 

Methods of Introduction and Infestation. — It is generally 
agreed that lice and other parasites flourish best in insanitary 
surroundings. There must, however, be a source of infesta- 
tion. Lice are brought to a new place by introducing in- 
fested birds. They spread from bird to bird (a) directly 
during copulation (an infested cock often infests the whole 



External Parasites 209 

flock), or (b) when two hens occupy a nest together, or (c) 
from mother to chick. They also pass indirectly from bird 
to bird by crawling off one bird first on to the nesting material 
and later on to another bird which uses the same nest. Sharp 
has also observed several lice clinging to the body of a 
fly parasitic upon chickens. Lice are so much more common 
than the parasitic fly that it is probable that this insect 
is of little real importance in the distribution of the lice. 

All the lice breed very rapidly. In 8 weeks the third 
generation is mature and in this generation the estimated 
number of the oft'spring of a single pair is 125,000 individuals. 
It seems important to eradicate an infestation if possible 
as soon as discovered. However, if kept under sanitary 
conditions and furnished w^ith plenty of attractive dust, 
vigorous birds will hold external parasites in check. With 
some attention to sick birds, setting hens and young chicks, 
the parasites will give little trouble on a plant conducted 
with due regard to the principles of hygiene and sanitation 
(cf. Chapter II). 

Salmon ("Diseases of Poultry") says: "It should be re- 
membered at all times that the external animal parasites 
are the most common and frequent cause of trouble in 
the poultry-yard and pigeon-cote. If the birds are not 
thriving and conducting themselves satisfactorily, look 
for these pests, take measures to repress them, and in 
most cases the results will be surprising and gratifying. 
When anything is the matter with a horse the maxim is 
examine his feet, and when anything is found wrong with 
poultry or other domesticated birds, the maxim should be 
look for lice." 

Diagnosis. — Adult hens may harbor quite a number of 
these parasites without showing any symptoms which indi- 
cate their presence. If they are unthrifty and broody hens 
leave their nests they should be examined for lice. The 



210 Diseases of Poultry 

biting and digging of the claws of the lice may cause sores 
and the nervous irritation and loss of sleep may cause general 
debility and bowel trouble. Little chickens are very sus- 
ceptible and often die. Lice are frequently found in large 
numbers on birds suffering from roup, gapes, etc. In some 
cases their presence has rendered the birds more susceptible 
to other disease, while in others it is probable that the birds 
lack sufficient energy to dust themselves. 

The sure test for the presence of lice is, of course, finding 
the lice. Part the feathers under the wing, on the back 
and around the vent and examine the exposed skin. Exam- 
ine the head and neck feathers and look between the large 
feathers of the wing. When present the parasites are easily 
found by any one who is familiar with them. It seems in- 
credible that serious infestations can escape the eye of any 
poultryman. 

Treatmejit. — Sanitary surroundings and liberal range 
help the birds in their attempts to keep themselves free from 
lice. The dust bath is very efficient in holding the pests 
in check. It is doubtful, however, whether the dust boxes 
which used to be almost universally kept in the poultry 
house are of any real value. It is a noticeable fact that 
dust boxes are much less used now than formerly. As com- 
monly made these boxes are too small, and too shallow, and 
are not filled with the proper kind of material. Hens will 
use them, in most cases, only as a last resort if at all. 

When possible, birds should be given access to dry, sandy 
ground, and they will provide their own dust bath. Some 
authors advise adding insect powder to the earth in dust 
boxes for bad infestations. It is doubtful whether under the 
best of circumstances this does anything but waste the 
insect powder. It is better to apply the powder directly 
to the bird and furnish clean earth for the dust bath. 

When hens are used for incubating and brooding it is 



i 



# External Parasites 211 

necessary to give some indixidual treatment to brooding 
hens and young chicks. It is also necessary to treat sick 
hens which are not able to use the dust bath. While it is 
theoretically possible to exterminate the pests and keep the 
flock free from them by avoiding the introduction of infected 
birds, this ideal condition prevails in very few poultry plants. 
In almost all flocks there are enough lice present to cause 
trouble if conditions favor their development. 

How to Make an Effective and Very Cheap Lice Powder. — 
When the treatment of individual birds for lice becomes 
necessary some kind of powder dusted into the feathers 
thoroughly has been one of the most effective and advisable 
remedies. The powder used must be of such nature, however, 
that it will be effective. There are so-called "lice powders" 
on the market which are no more effective than an equal 
quantity of any inert powdered substance would be. It is 
not only a waste of money but of time as well to use such 
powders. At the Maine Station no lice powder has been 
found that is so satisfactory as that originally invented by 
Mr. R. C. La wry, formerly of the poultry department of 
Cornell University. The following matter regarding this 
powder (which can be made at a very low cost) is quoted 
from a circular issued by the Maine Station : 

"In using any kind of lice powder on poultry, whether 
the one described in this circular or some other, it should 
always be remembered that a single application of powder 
is not sufficient. When there are lice present on a bird 
there are always unhatched eggs of lice (' nits ') present too. 
The proper procedure is to follow up a first application of 
powder with a second at an interval of 4 days to a week. If 
the birds are badly infested at the beginning it may be neces- 
sary to make still a third application. 

" The lice powder which the Station uses is made at 
a cost of only a few cents a pound in the following way : 



212 Diseases of Poultry 

" Take 3 parts of gasoline, 

1 part of crude carbolic acid; 

"To get the proper results 07ily the 90-95 per cent car- 
bolic acid should be used for making lice powder. Weaker acids 
are ineffective. 

"Owing to the difficulty in getting the strong crude car- 
bolic acid locally in this State at reasonable prices, the Sta- 
tion has experimented to see whether some other more readily 
obtainable substance could not be substituted for it. It has 
been found that cresol gives as good results as the highest 
grade- crude carbolic. 

" The directions for making the powder are now, therefore, 
modified as follows : 

" Take 3 parts of gasoline, and 

1 part of crude carbolic acid, 90-95 per cent strength, 
or, if the 90-95 per cent strength crude carbolic acid cannot be 
obtained take 

3 parts of gasoline and 
1 part of cresol. 

" Mix these together and add gradually with stirring, enough 
plaster of paris to take up all the moisture. As a general 
rule it will take about 4 quarts of plaster of paris to 1 quart 
of the liquid. The exact amount, however, must be deter- 
mined by the condition of the powder in each case. The 
liquid and dry plaster should be thoroughly mixed and 
stirred so that the liquid will be uniformly distributed through 
the mass of plaster. When enough plaster has been added 
the resulting mixture should be a dry, pinkish brown pow- 
der having a fairly strong carbolic odor and a rather less 
pronounced gasoline odor. 

" Do not use more plaster in mixing than is necessary to 
blot up the liquid. This powder is to be worked into the 
feathers of the birds affected with vermin. The bulk of the 
application should be in the fluff around the vent and on 



External Parasites 213 

the ventral side of the body and in the fluff under the wings. 
Its efficiency, which is greater than that of any other lice 
powder known to the writer, can be very easily demonstrated 
by any one to his own satisfaction. Take a bird that is 
covered with lice and apply the powder in the manner just 
described. After a lapse of about a minute, shake the bird, 
loosening its feathers with the fingers at the same time, over 
a clean piece of paper. Dead and dying lice will drop on 
the paper in great numbers. Any one who will try this 
experiment will have no further doubt of the wonderful 
efficiency and value of this powder." 

Next to the Lawry powder probably pure pyrethrum or 
Persian insect powder is as cheap and effective as anything 
to be had. 

A time-honored and effective treatment for lice, especially 
for young chicks, is greasing. The grease most often used is 
lard or sometimes lard and sulphur. The latter should not 
be used' for young chicks. The lard is applied with the 
finger to the head, neck, under the wings and around the 
vent. Greasing is a somewhat tedious but very effective 
treatment for lice, especially on young chicks, since lice 
usually attack them on the head and neck. 

B. MITES — ACARINA 

Eighteen species of mites are parasitic upon fowls. Only 
4 of these are sufficiently injurious and widely distributed to 
be of great economic importance. Occasionally one or 
another of the other species becomes sufficiently abundant 
to be of local importance. The mites are small 8-legged 
animals related to the spiders. Some of the mites parasitic 
on the fowl visit their host only to feed, as the common red 
mite ; others remain on the surface of the skin or on the 
feathers, as in the case of depluming scabies. Others live 



214 



Diseases of Poultry 



under the skin, causing deep-seated skin diseases like scaly 
leg; still others find their way into the internal regions of 
the body, living either on mucous membrances like the air-sac 
mite (p. 180) or upon the connective tissue like the connec- 
tive tissue mite. 

The most common and most injurious mite parasitic on 
fowls is the common fowl mite or red mite, Dermanyssus 
gallinae. These mites are present in almost every poultry 
house that is not kept very clean. When they are present 




Fig. 40. — The common "red mite" of poultry, Dermanyssus gallince. a, 
adult, d and e, young. (After Osborn.) 

in large numbers they are a serious pest. This mite is a 
little more than ^ millimeter long. The female is a little 
larger than the male. When empty they are gray with 
dark spots, but usually they appear some shade from yellow 
to dark red according to the amount of fowl's blood they 
contain. They visit the fowls only to feed and spend the 
rest of the time on the under sides of the roosts, in cracks 
and crevices, under collections of droppings or other filth 
and in the nesting material, especially if such material is 
dirty straw. The mites breed in these places. They repro- 



i 



External Parasites 215 

duce very rapidly, especially in spring and summer. The 
eggs are laid in concealed places, usually in cracks containing 
filth or in dirty nesting material. The young mites are 
white and have only 6 legs. Their first food is probably 
filth or decayed wood. They molt several times and their 
cast skins are often seen as a white powder on the perches. 
After the first molt the larvae have 8 legs. The mites are 
able to live and reproduce for months at least without ani- 
mal food, but when they are associated with fowls the older 
larvae and adults depend upon the blood of the fowls for 
food. They usually attack the birds at night but sometimes 
are found feeding on laying or brooding hens during the 
day. They pierce the skin with their needle-like jaws and 
suck the blood. The irritation due to the biting of a number 
of these creatures disturbs the rest of the bird and the loss of 
blood may be considerable. The mites thrive best in dark, 
damp, dirty houses and may be found in such houses for 
months after all fowls have been removed. They will bite 
man or other mammals, causing severe irritation, but do 
not remain on strange hosts for any length of time. Fowls 
should not be allowed to roost in sheds with other animals, 
as the sheds may become infested with the mites which 
will disturb the other animals as well as the fowls. 

Diagnosis. — If the birds are not doing well, especially if 
they appear emaciated and dejected, they should be exam- 
ined at night for mites. In the daytime the ends and 
under sides of the roosts and the cracks in them should be 
examined. Numbers of the mites are often found by pry- 
ing up a loose cleat or splitting off a wide loose sliver. They 
may often be found in old straw nests. 

Treatment. — Clean, dry, well ventilated houses which get 
plenty of sunlight are seldom badly infested. The first 
step in eradicating or controlling the pest is thoroughly to 
clean the houses. Remove the droppings and all the old 



216 Diseases of Poultry 

nesting material. Clean and when possible scrub or wash 
with a stream from the hose all the perches, nests, floors and 
walls. Spray or paint the perches, nests, walls and floors with 
a 5 per cent solution of cresol (see Chapter II for directions 
for making this). Professor H. C. Pierce has tested various 
remedies for mites and finds none so effective as this. Use 
plenty of solution and make the spraying thorough. Every 
crack and crevice should be flooded. 

Another spray successfully used is : 3 parts kerosene 
and 1 part crude carbolic acid. Still a third, kerosene emul- 
sion is recommended by the United States Department of 
Agriculture. Their method of making this spray as given 
in Circular No. 92 is as follows : " To make this, shave | 
pound of hard soap into 1 gallon of soft water and boil the 
mixture until the soap is dissolved. Then remove it to a 
safe distance from the fire and stir into it at once, while still 
hot, 2 gallons of kerosene or coal oil. The result is a thick, 
creamy emulsion. Dilute this stock mixture with 10 parts 
of soft water, and apply as a spray or with a brush, being 
careful to work it into all cracks, crevices, and joints of the 
building." 

With any of these sprays it is necessary to make two or 
more applications at intervals of a few days to destroy the 
mites which hatch after the first application. The liquid 
may be put on with a hand spray pump or with a brush. 
Cleanliness^ fresh air and sunlight are cheap and effective 
preventives. 

Scaly Leg 

A minute mite, Knemidocoptes (Dermatoryctes) (Sarcoptes) 
mutans, is the cause of a contagious disease affecting the 
legs of fowls, turkeys, pheasants, partridges and cage birds. 
According to some authorities it sometimes affects the comb 
and beak also. The mites excavate places under the skin 



External Parasites 



217 



JH 










^'^ 







Fig. 41. — 4. Normal leg of hen. B. Leg of hen affected with scaly 
leg. (After Megnin.)- 



218 . Diseases of Poultry 

where they hve and breed. The most thorough study yet 
made of this parasite and its effect on birds is that of Haiduk.^ 

Diagnosis. — This very common disease is easily recognized 
by the enlarged roughened appearance it gives the foot and 
shank. This appearance is shown in Fig. 41, with a normal 
leg for comparison. 

The disease is present in most flocks unless especial care 
has been taken to exclude it. It is slightly contagious, but 
usually only a few birds in a flock appear to be infected. The 
scales on the foot and leg of an affected bird are raised by a 
crusty substance deposited beneath them. The lesions 
usually appear first near the joints between the toes and 
foot. The parts affected first appear to be enlarged and 
then the scales are raised, giving the roughened appearance 
shown in B, Fig. 41. In early stages the disease does not 
appear to disturb the general health of the fowl. As it 
progresses the birds become lame and sometimes the foot 
becomes so badly diseased that joints or even whole toes 
drop off. The photograph of a badly affected leg is shown in 
Fig. 42. The two legs are usually affected equally. 

Etiology. — The disease is caused by the minute parasitic 
mite Knemidocoptes mutans (Figs. 43 and 44). 

The mites bore under the scales of the foot and leg and 
burrow deeper and deeper into the tissue. They set up an 
irritation which leads to multiplication of cells and the 
exudation of serum. This accumulation forms crusty 
deposits beneath the scales. These crusts contain many 
depressions in which are embedded female mites containing 
eggs. The larvae and the males are usually found beneath 
the crusts. The relations just described are shown in Fig. 
45 which is a picture of a section of the skin of a "scaly" 
leg. 

1 Haiduk, T., "Die Fussrauder des Gefliigels." Inaug. Diss. 
Giessen, 1909, pp. 1-58, Taf. I-VI. 



E.vicrnul Parasites 



219 




Fig. 42. — Photograph of the leg of a hen very severely affected with 
scaly leg. (After Haiduk.) 



220 



Diseases of Poultry 



As the disease progresses the mites which are becoming 
constantly more numerous penetrate very deep into the 




.•<^^^x-» 




-^'^Mii 



mmms 




Fig. 43. — Photograph of the adult female of the mite Knemidocoptes 
(Dermatoryctes) mutans. (After Haiduk.) 

tissues, causing lameness and sometimes the loss of some of 
the toes. 

The infection from bird to bird probably takes place on 
the roosts or from mother to chick, Robinson believes that 



External Parasites 



221 



the birds most likely to be infected are those with a deficient 
supply of oil in the skin. The conditions which favor its 




-''l.^r'^TV^:^ 






'V. 



Fig. 44. — Photograph of the six-legged larva of Knemidocoptes {Derma- 
torydes) mutans. (After Haiduk.) 



spread in a flock are dry, barren runs, especially on alkaline 
soils or in yards filled with ashes or cinders. Foul roosting 
places also favor the spread of the disease. The disease is 



222 Diseases of Poultry 

easily cured and it is worth the trouble of any poultryman 
to cure all the affected birds and to examine any birds pur- 
chased that infected ones may be treated before they are 
introduced into the flock. 

Treatment. — Individual treatment is necessary to cure 
the disease. This treatment consists in the application 
of some penetrating oil to the diseased parts. A large 
number of oils and ointments have been used successfully. 
If the case is not far advanced and if there is no special 
hurry about bringing about the cure the application of the 
oils or ointments at intervals of 2 or 3 days will soon do the 
work. If the birds must be cured quickly for show or sale 
purposes the cure is hastened by removing the scales and 
crusts before applying the medicine. This may be done by 
brushing with a stiff toothbrush before each treatment. 
Or the feet may be soaked for a few moments in warm soapy 
water and then brushed. When the disease is far advanced 
it is best to begin the treatment by the removal of the scales. 

Haiduk's experiments show that one of the very best 
cures for scaly leg is oil of caraway. This is best applied in an 
ointment made of 1 part of oil of caraway to 5 parts of white 
vaseline. Oil of caraway is very penetrating and is not 
nearly as irritating as some of the treatments more usually 
advised. This ointment should be rubbed into the leg and 
foot every few days until signs of the disease disappear. 

Hill recommends dail}^ application of an ointment made 
of equal parts of vaseline and zinc ointment, or in severe 
cases of one made of 1 ounce of sulphur, ^ ounce of oxide of 
zinc, 1 dram of oil of tar and 2 ounces of whale oil mixed 
together. 

There are two common remedies used successfully by 
poultrymen. These are irritating and should be used with 
some caution. They have the advantage of being quickly 
applied. The best of these is probably a mixture of 1 part 



External Parasites 



999 




=y^' 



Fig. 45. — Section of the skin of the leg of a fowl affected with scaly leg. 

a. Papilla with pigment cells. 

b. Lymphatic tissue in the papilla. 

c. Epidermis : stratum profundum. 

d. Epidermis : stratum corneum. 

e. Section through a mite. 

6. Section through a mite showing head and 2 pairs of legs. 

/. Young mite. 

g. Cavity excavated by mites. 

h. Excrement of mite. 

i. Horny layer between the mite excavations. 

(From Haiduk, after Olt.) 



224 Diseases of Poultry 

of coal oil or kerosene and 2 parts of raw linseed oil. If a 
quick cure is imperative a half-and-half mixture may be 
used. Robinson in Farm Poultry, May, 1907, recommends a 
quick and easy method of applying this. It is to take a 
tall quart measure of the liquid to the hen house at night 
and dip both legs of each infected bird into the measure of 
oil, holding them there for a moment and then allowing 
them to drip for a moment more and then replacing the hen 
on the roost. With any treatment which involves the use 
of kerosene care must be taken not to wet the feathers of 
the leg, as this causes irritation and sometimes burns the 
skin much as the human skin is burned when it is rubbed 
with kerosene and covered with flannel. 

A second method of applying kerosene is to put a teaspoon- 
ful of the oil in a quart measure of water and treat the birds 
by the method given above. The same care should be taken 
not to wet the feathers. 

The advantage of these treatments is their easy and rapid 
application to a number of birds. 

Depluming Scabies 

The mite Sarcoptes Icevis var. gallince (Fig. 46) is the cause 
of a kind of scabies in fowls which causes the feathers to 
break off at the surface of the skin. 

Symptoms. — This disease usually appears in spring and 
summer and is characterized by the dropping off of patches 
of feathers on different parts of the body. It usually begins 
at the rump and spreads to the head and neck, back, thighs 
and breast. The large wing and tail feathers are not usually 
lost. The exposed skin is normal in appearance. Around 
the stumps of the lost feathers and at the end of the quills 
of feathers near the bare spots are masses of epidermal 
scales. On microscopic examination these scales are found 



E.vternnJ Parasites 



225 




to be composed of numerous mites and their debris. The 
irritation of the mites often causes the birds to pull their 
own feathers. Birds affected often pull each others' feathers. 
Some of the so-called feather eating is due to the presence 
of this parasite, but fowls sometimes pull each others' 
feathers when the parasite is not present. Salmon says this 
disease does not affect the general health of the bird and does 
not appear to 
disturb gain in ^ '^ 

flesh or egg pro- 
duction, but 
Theobald says 
that the disease 
checks egg lay- 
ing in hens and 
affected cocks 
become emaci- 
ated and some- 
times die. 

Etiology. — The 
mite Sarcoptes 
IcB V is which 
causes this dis- 
ease is smaller than the one which causes scaly leg. They 
live at the base of the feathers in the epidermal debris 
referred to above. A flock becomes infested by the intro- 
duction of one or more birds carrying the mites. The mites 
are spread from bird to bird by the male in copulation. The 
distribution is often very rapid so that the whole flock is 
soon affected. 

Treatment. — The disease should be prevented by taking 
care not to introduce infested birds. If it appears, all affected 
birds should at once be isolated. The mites yield easily to 
treatment. The infested areas may be rubbed with some 




Fig. 



46. — Egg containing female Sarcoptes Icevis 
var. gallincB. (After Theobald.) 



226 Diseases of Poultry 

of the less irritating ointments recommended for scaly legs 
(see p. 222). 

The following list gives some ointments in the order of 
their desirability for use on the body. 

Oil of caraway ointment (1 to 5). 

Balsam of Peru. 

Creolin treatment (1 to 10). 

Helmerich's ointment. 
Salmon gives a modification of the latter ointment which 
he considers an improvement for use in depluming scabies. 

Flowers of sulphur, 1 dram, 

Carbonate of potash, 20 grains, 

Lard or vaseline, § ounce. 
Scabies may also be cured by liquid applications. The 
two following preparations are recommended by Salmon : A 
solution of balsam of Peru in alcohol (1 part of balsam to 
3 of alcohol) or 1 dram of creolin, 2 ounces of glycerine, ^ 
ounce of alcohol and ^ ounce of water. -Either of these 
liquids are applied by rubbing into the skin. The applica- 
tion should be repeated every 4 or 5 days until the disease is 
cured. 

Other Mites Affecting Poultry 

Another form of Body Mange or scabies is found asso- 
ciated with the mites Epidernioptes bilobatus and Epider- 
moptes bifurcatus, but it has not been certainly demonstrated 
that they are the cause of the disease. Present evidence 
indicates that they are. 

The disease closely resembles favus (p. 223), but usually 
does not affect the head. The regions commonly attacked 
are the neck, breast, the wings and the body under the wings. 
It sometimes affects the entire body, including the head. 
The skin becomes irritated and shows an accumulation of 
scales or crusts especially at the base of the feathers. 



External Parasites 



227 




The mites live on the skin at the base of the feathers. 

Since the mites are sometimes found on birds which show 

no signs of scabies and since the disease so 

closely resembles favus, which is known to 

be caused by a fungus, it is sometimes 

supposed that this mange is also due to a 

fungus and that the mites are inoffensive. 
Five species of mites have been recorded 

which live upon the feathers of fowls. 

These are fairly abundant but do no harm. 
Two mites live within the body of fowls. 

One of these, the air-sac mite, is described 

elsewhere (p. 180). The other, the connec- 
tive tissue mite, Sympledoptes cysticola, is 

found in the connective tissue of the fowls. 

They produce local irritations giving rise 

to tubercles, but apparently do not affect 

the health of the bird. 

The larvffi of the so-called "harvest-bug" 
(which is not a 6 ?/ </ at all), 
TetranycJms{Throm- 
hidium) (Leptvs) autwnnalis, sometimes 
attacks poultry. The appearance of this 
mite is shown in Fig. 48. 

This small brick red mite, barely visi- 
ble to the naked eye, [s bred upon berry 
and currant bushes, vegetables and grain, 

Fig. 48. — "Harvest , , • «. •. i •. i 

bug," Tetranychus t)ut when opportunity otters it bites al- 
{Leptus) autumnalis, j^q^^ ^ny animal, often attacking man. 

larval form. (After ,. *^. ' • i i i 

Murray.) It somctimcs causcs Considerable mor- 

tality among late hatched chickens which 
frequent its breeding places. The parasites fasten themselves 
so firmly by their claws and palpi that they can only be 
detached by force. They produce intense irritation, which 




Fig. 47. — Syynplec- 
toptes cysticola. 
Connective tissue 
mite. (After 
Theobald.) 



228 



Diseases of Poultry 



often leads to epileptiform symptoms and death follows in a 
few days. 

Theobald suggests dusting flowers of sulphur among the 
feathers when the parasites are present. Probably the 
La wry lice powder (p. 211) would be more effective. When 




Fig. 49. — The poultry tick, Argas persicus. Adult ventral view, showing 
the four pairs of legs, mouth parts, etc. (After Laurie.) 



these parasites are abundant chickens should be kept away 
from the places where the mites breed. 

Ticks. — A poultry tick, Argas persicus, occurs in South 
Africa, Australia, and many other parts of the world. It 
occurs to some extent in the southern part of the United 
States. Where present it is an exceedingly destructive 



External Parasites 229 

pest. The following notes are taken from a paper by 
Laurie.^ 

These parasites belong to the group of mites Acari. In 
the adult stage they have four pairs of legs but in the larval 
stages only three pairs (Figs. 49 and 50). 

These ticks are nocturnal in habit. During the day they 
secrete themselves in cracks and crevices and are rarely 
seen. At night they come out on to the roosts and fasten 




Fig. 50. — The poultry tick. Larva, showing the three pairs of legs. (After 

Laurie.) 

themselves upon the birds. After gorging themselves with 
blood they return to the cracks to digest their meal. An 
adult tick feeds only about once a month, as it requires that 
time to digest fully one meal. During the growing periods 
they undergo a molt after digesting each meal. These 
ticks breed very prolifically, so that a poultry house once 
infested soon becomes overrun by them. 

1 Laurie, D. F. The Poultry Tick. Dept. of Agric. of South 
Australia, Bui. No. 74, pp. 1-32, 1912. 



230 Diseases of Poultry 

A considerable portion of the injury done by these para- 
sites is due to the irritating annoyance of the feeding ticks. 
It has been found, however, that this is not the most seri- 
ous injury. In those countries infested with these ticks 
there is a disease known as the tick fever. It has been shown 
that this disease is caused by a protozoon blood parasite, 
Spirochceta marchouxi, and that this protozoon lives in the 
poultry tick as an intermediate host. 

Treatment. — Thorough cleanliness and disinfection are the 
remedies to use against this tick. Five to ten per cent 
kerosene emulsion applied to the clean roosts and walls will 
rid the place of these pests. 

Other External Parasites 

The dove cot bug or "bed-bug" of poultrymen, found in 
pigeon lofts, sometimes invades neighboring hen roosts. 
It probably sometimes attacks fowls. It resembles closely 
the bed bug found in dwelling houses, and like this pest is 
hard to exterminate as it can live almost indefinitely on 
dead organic matter. This tick hides in cracks during the 
day and attacks its host only at night. Persistent repetition 
of the sprays recommended for hen roosts infected with red 
mites (p. 216) will destroy these parasites. 

Leaflet No. 57 of the English Board of Agriculture gives 
the following brief account of the hen flea, Pulex gallince (or 
avium) : 

"The fleas, which are true insects, belong to the order of 
flies (Diptera). They feed upon the blood. One species 
only lives upon the fowl, namely the bird flea {Pulex galUnoe 
or avium) which attacks also most other birds. The hen 
flea, as it is generally called, is abundant in dirty fowl runs, 
and especially in the nests where straw is used. The adult 
flea is dark in color, and, as in all fleas, is devoid of wings. 



External Parasites 



231 



The fleas are provided with very sharp piercing mouths. 
They are what are termed 'partial parasites' — parasites 
that only go to their hosts to feed. The fleas are not noticed 
on the birds because they generally attack them at night ; 
then, however, they do much harm, causing constant irri- 
tation and loss of blood, and depriving them of rest. 

"Life-history of lien Flea. — The female flea lays her eggs 
(nits) chiefly in the nests amongst dust and dirt and in the 
crevices of the walls 
and floor. These nits 
give rise to pearly 
white maggots, with 
brown horny heads, 
which can often be 
found in the bottom 
of the nests amongst 
the dust. These 
larvae are mature in 
2 or 3 weeks, then 
they reach about q of 
an inch in length. In 
warm weather they 
may be full fed in 

even 10 days. They then spin a pale cocoon amongst the 
dirt, in which they pupate. The pupa is at first pale 
brown, then dark chestnut brown. In this condition the 
flea remains 10 to 21 days, when the pupa hatches into the 
adult. They breed all the year round, but chiefly in warm 
weather. It is well to remember that, whenever there are 
dark and dirty hen roosts, there are sure to be a number of 
Pulex gaUincB.'" 

Treatment. — These parasites do not usually occur under 
sanitary housing conditions. When they occur the houses 
should be cleaned and sprayed as for red mites (p. 215). 




Fig. 51. — The chicken flea, Pulex gallinae 
or avium. The mark above the head in- 
dicates the actual size. (After Kaupp.) 



232 Diseases of Poultry 

Theobald recommends the use of excelsior or shavings in- 
stead of straw for nesting material, as the fleas do not breed 
as readily in this material. 

Manson's Eye Worm 

This parasite (Oxyspirura mansoni) was first reported 
from America in 1904.^ It appears to occur very infre- 
quently in this country at the present time. It is abundant 
in some of the tropical and subtropical countries. Wilcox 
and McClelland ^ state that it is very common in Honolulu 
where infested birds are found in nearly every flock. 

According to these writers the eggs are laid in the eye and 
are washed down the lacrymal duct and thence to the intes- 
tines. The eggs hatch and the larvae live until half grown on 
damp soil. At this time they enter the eye of the chicken 
directly. 

Treatment. — Anesthetize the eye with 5 per cent solu- 
tion of cocaine. Lift the nictitating membrane and drop 
a 5 per cent solution of creolin directly into the inner corner 
of the eye under the membrane. 

Liming the soil in the yards or keeping the birds on dry, 
frequently disinfected floors until the infestation disappears 
are recommended. 

1 Ransom, B. H., "Manson's Eye Worm of Chickens," etc. 
U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bur. of Anim. Ind., Bui. 60, pp. 72, 1904. 

2 Wilcox, E. v., and McClelland, C. K., "The Eye Worm of 
Chickens." Hawaii Exper. Sta. Press Bui. 43, p. 14. 



CHAPTER XVI 



Diseases of the Skin 



Favus {Baldness or White Comb) 

This disease of the skin attacks poultry as well as man and 
the domestic mammals. In mammals it is called tinea favosa 
or favus. 

Diagnosis. — The disease usually appears first as small 
gray white spots on the comb, 
wattles, eyelids and around 
the ears, that is, on the un- 
feathered parts of the head. 
The spots enlarge and run to- 
gether forming a scaly crust 
which becomes thicker until in 
three or four weeks it may be 
as much as 8 millimeters (^ 
inch) thick. The scales which 
make up the crust are often 
formed in concentric rings, the 
margins raised and the centers 
depressed, so that the scale is 
somewhat cup shaped. When 
the crust is removed the skin 
appears irritated and in places 
the surface is somewhat raw. 
The disease spreads to the feathered parts of the head, the 
neck and the region around the vent. The base of the 

233 




Fig. 52. — Head and neck of a 
fowl affected with generalized 
favus. (After Pearson.) 



234 Diseases of Poultry 

feathers becomes surrounded by concentric rings of the scaly 
material. The feathers become dry, erect, and brittle and 
finally break off or fall out leaving a disk-shaped scale with a 
depression at the bottom where the base of the feather was 
located. The bird's head and neck and patches around 
the vent become bare of feathers. The exposed skin 
is covered with the cup-shaped scales. Sometimes the 
disease spreads over the whole body until the bird becomes 
nearly naked. The diseased bird has a peculiar disagree- 
able odor, sometimes likened to the odor of a musty 
grain or to moldy cheese and sometimes to cat's urine or to 
macerating animal material. In early stages the general 
health does not appear to be affected, but as the disease 
advances the bird loses its appetite, becomes poor and 
exhausted, and finally dies. 

Etiology. — The disease is caused by the fungus Achorion 
schonleinii. 

This fungus is found in the cup-like scales on the skin and in 
the quills of the feathers of the diseased parts. If the favic 
cups or scales are moistened with weak acetic acid and exam- 
ined under the microscope, it will be seen that they are 
formed of branching, thread-like mycelial tubes of the fungus 
closely interwoven with one another, spores of the fungus, 
and epithelial scales from the skin of the host embedded in a 
viscid substance secreted by the fungus. Some of the tubes 
of the mycelium contain spores. Many of the spores are 
found free among the filaments. They are usually found in 
groups of 3, 4, or 8. 

Both the mycelium and spores of the fungus are found in 
the quills of the feathers of the diseased parts. The fungus 
sometimes penetrates even the barbs of the feathers. 

Favus is a contagious disease and gets into a flock by the 
introduction of an affected bird. It is less likely to attack 
strong, vigorous birds than those in poor condition. It 



Diseases of the Skin 



235 



usually starts at a point where the skin is broken. Young 
birds are more susceptible than old ones. The large Asiatic 
breeds are specially liable to take the disease. No breed is 
entirely immune. 

Megnin ^ and some other authors consider this disease 
distinct from the favus of man and other animals, but numer- 
ous recorded observations 
indicate that it is the same 
disease, and may be com- 
municated to man. In 
handling affected birds, 
therefore, care shoidd be 
exercised to prevent infec- 
tion of cuts or scratches. 

Treatment. — Diseased 
birds should not be intro- 
duced into a flock. If the 
disease has been acciden- 
tally introduced the af- 
fected birds should be 
isolated as soon as possi- 
ble. The flocks should be 
watched in order to dis- 
cover and isolate any new 
cases that appear. 

In early stages the dis- 
ease yields readily to treatment. Ziirn considers treatment 
economically advisable only before the feathered parts of 
the body are attacked. The disease may sometimes be 
cured at a later stage. The value of the affected bird must 
determine whether or not it is worth treating. 

As much of the crust as possible should be removed. This 




Fig. 53. — ■ The fungus Achorion schon- 
Icinii which causes favus in poultry. 
tv. Empty tubes of mycelium, tp. 
Tubes of the mycelium containing 
protoplasm and spores. 



1 Megnin, P., "Medecine des oiseaux." Vincennes, 1906. 



236 Diseases of Poultry 

is best done by first softening the scabs with warm water or 
with oil or glycerine. Robinson recommends scraping with 
the back of a knife or a spoon handle. The parts should then 
be painted with tincture of iodine or should be bathed with 
corrosive sublimate solution, 1 part of the sublimate to 1000 
parts of water, and then rubbing with the ointment described 
on page 55. In using the corrosive sublimate solution it should 
be borne in mind that this solution, which unless colored with 
some dye looks exactly like water, is extremely poisonous 
to men and animals when taken internally. Dishes or bottles 
of corrosive sublimate should never be left where they can be 
accidentally mistaken for water. 

Lard and sulphur are often used successfully in the treat- 
ment of favus. Use nearly as much sulphur as lard and work 
them into a smooth salve. In early stages the disease 
usually yields to application of lard or oil alone. 

Prognosis. — In early stages the favus may be cured at the 
expense of a small amount of attention. After the feathered 
parts become affected a cure requires considerable labor as the 
fungus is better protected from the applications. 

White Comb 

This name is often used for favus, but some authorities 
{e.g., Vale) use it to designate a condition of the comb charac- 
terized by a white powdery scurf of the surface. The comb 
is light colored and the white scales or flakes are particles 
detached from the epidermis. This condition is thought to 
be due to anaemia. Wright says that it " appears generally 
due to dirt, or overcrowding in small space, or want of green 
food." The only treatment advised is to place the birds 
under sanitary conditions and give them a good balanced 
ration. 



Diseases of the Skin 237 

Chichen Pox {Sore-head or Epithelioma Contagiosum) 

This contagious disease of poultry, although widely dis- 
tributed in the northern states, is less common and serious 
here than in the Gulf states and Hawaiian Islands. It is 
impossible at present to decide whether this is a distinct 
disease or a form of roup which affects the skin of the head. 
This can only be determined when further investigations 
have revealed the real cause of these diseases. Experiments 
have shown that both pox and diphtheria are easily inoculated 
from fowl to fowl and from pigeon to fowl, but the inocula- 
tion of pox from fowl to pigeon has proved very difficult and 
that of diphtheria impossible. The contagion is believed to 
exist in the blood as well as in the nodules which appear upon 
the skin. 

The disease is generally introduced by new birds which are 
put into the flock or by exhibition birds which return infected. 
Probably it is often brought by pigeons, sparrows, and other 
birds which fly from one yard to another. The inoculation 
of the comb and wattles appears to occur by rubbing these 
parts with the infected feet or by being injured with the 
infected beaks of other birds. 

The virus is quite resistant and requires thorough dis- 
infection for its eradication. 

Diagnosis. — The disease usually appears as warty nodules 
on the unfeathered parts of the head. They look like the 
tumors in the nasal passages and eye sockets of birds affected 
with roup. 

Freidberger and Frohner ^ give a good description of these 
nodules on the skin of the head, as follows : 

"Their favorite seats are those parts of the head that are 
not covered with feathers ; root of the beak, neighborhood of 

^ Freidberger and Frohner, " Veterinary Pathology." (Vol. I. 
Hayes transl.) Quoted from Gary. 



238 Diseases of Poultry 

the nostrils, angles of the mouth, lobes of the ear, parts 
adjacent to the auditory meatus, wattles, surface of the face, 
edges of the eyelids, intermaxillary space, and especially the 
comb. They sometimes spread over the feathered parts of 
the head, throat and neck, and may occur on the outer 
surface of the thighs, abdomen, under the wings and in the 
vicinity of the cloaca. At first these epitheliomata appear 
in the skin, as flat nodules, which soon become prominent, 
and which vary in size from a poppy seed to a millet seed. 
Later on, they usually attain the size of a hemp seed. They 
are of a reddish-gray or yellowish-gray color, often show 
distinctly in their earlier stages of development a peculiar 
greasy, nacreous luster; and are rather firm to the touch. 
Their surface soon becomes covered with a dirty-gray, 
yellowish-brown or red-brown crust. They are discrete 
and disseminated in considerable numbers on the erectile 
tissues, etc. They vary in size according to their age ; and 
frequently lie rather close to one another, so that the aftected 
parts look as if coarsely granulated ; or they are crowded 
together in such a manner as to give the appearance of large 
warts with divisions through them, or mulberry-like hyper- 
trophies. Even single nodules, to say nothing of the groups, 
may attain the size of a lentil, pea, cherry-stone, broad bean 
or larger object." The older they become, the rougher and 
more covered with knobs will be their incrusted surface. 
"If the edges of the eye-lids be affected by these tumors, 
the lids will become nodular, swollen and closed. The con- 
junctiva in this case also suffers ; it projects outwards be- 
cause catarrhally inflamed ; assumes a yellowish color at the 
seat of eruption ; and its surface becomes covered with crusts. 
Purulent conjunctivitis may appear and the inflammation 
may spread to the sclerotic and cornea, with keratitis and 
panophthalmia as the result. If, as sometimes happens with 
pigeons, the eruption of nodules extends over the whole of 



Diseases of the Skin 



239 



the skin of the eye-Hds and its neighborhood, the entire eye 
will become covered with mulberry-like proliferations of 
various sizes." 

The presence of these nodules on the epithelium of the 
head is often (but apparently not always) accompanied with 





^^^k. 


















A 

1 


i 




■1 

i 


'M 




^ ^\ 


I 


rx 




W' 


^^HPi9 








1 



Fig. 54. Sore-head on comb, eyelids and skin. (After Hadley and Beach.) 

characteristic roup lesions of the nasal cavities, mouth and 
throat. As long as the disease is confined to the skin of the 
head the general health of the bird does not seem to be af- 
fected. Recovery may take place without treatment in 
from 10 to 20 days. The nodules in such cases dry up and 
fall off. Usually, however, the disease is not self-limited, 
but advances. The eyes may become closed so that the 



240 Diseases of Poultry 

birds cannot see to eat. They get poor and die from exhaus- 
tion. When the mucous membrane of the mouth develops 
diphtheritic membranes, death occurs earUer than in other 
forms. 

Etiology. — The lesions of this disease resemble the lesions 
of roup and many of the same micro-organisms are found in 
the two cases. The organisms isolated from the lesions of 
sore-head include several bacteria, a coccidium, a yeast and 
several molds. The coccidium, one of the molds, and one 
of the bacteria have each been considered the cause of the 
disease by different workers. The real cause of the disease 
and its relation to roup must be determined by further 
investigations. 

IVIany recent investigations have indicated that the disease 
is caused by a filterable virus. ^ In regard to the etiology 
and mode of transmission Gary ^ says : 

" It is evidently infectious ; because the disease in all its 
forms, spreads rather rapidly from one chicken or pigeon to 
another. Ward, Harrison and others have transmitted, in 
some cases quite readily by carrying a small amount of dis- 
eased material (exudate and blood), from a sore-head chicken 
to healthy chickens. It is also quite certain that chicken pox 
and pigeon pox are identical or one and the same disease. 

"Mosquitoes, gnat flies, chicken mites (ticks), chicken lice, 
chicken foot mites (Sarcoptes mutans) and possibly cock- 
roaches may sometimes be carriers of the real virus. It seems 
quite certain that mosquitoes can transmit the virus from 

1 For example see : 

Bruet, E., "Contribution a I'etude I'epithelioma contagieux des 
oiseaux." Ann. I'Inst. Past., T. 29, pp. 742-765, 1906. 

Sweet, C. D., "A Study of Epithelioma Contagiosum of the 
Common Fowl." Univ. of Calif. Public ZooL, Vol. II, pp. 29-51 
1913. 

2 Cary, C. A., "Chicken-pox or Sore-head in Poultry." Alabamsk 
Agr. Expt. Stat. Bui. 136, pp. 17-56, 1906. 



Diseases of the Skin 241 

water or some other source, under certain conditions. 
Warm and wet weather seem to increase the virulency of the 
virus and favor the rapid transmission of the disease. It is 
not impossible that ants may have a role to play in the trans- 
mission or cause of sore-head. 

"Pathological Anatomy. — On the skin the small, greasy- 
like nodules, or hypertrophied nodules of the skin, contain 
epithelial cells that have in them 'greasy' refractive bodies 
that stain yellow with picro-carmine and the nuclei of the 
epithelial cells become ' reddish brown ' in color. Nearly all 
the epithelial cells in the nodule appear larger than normal 
and contain the refractive bodies. In the younger epithelial 
cells these bodies (young coccidia) are relatively small and 
occupy I to ^ of the epithelial cavity. In the older or 
outer or cast-off epithelial cells these refractive bodies are 
said by Freidberger and Frohner to occupy the entire cavities 
of the epithelial cells. The invaded or infested epithelial 
cells are unusually larger than the epidermal cells of the 
healthy neighboring skin. Among the cast-off mass of 
epithelial cells are found round refractive bodies and numer- 
ous nuclei of leucocytes or pus cells. The subcutaneous con- 
nective tissue is hyperaemic (congested) and is infiltrated with 
cells (leucocytes and nuclei of disintegrated cells). Possibly 
some of the small nuclei-like bodies among the cells in the sub- 
cutis may represent one stage in the development of coccidia. 
Many observers have, also, found various bacteria in the 
nodule and subcutis. 

"When the exudate on the mucous surface or the crust of 
the nodule of the skin is torn off the raw surface bleeds rather 
freely and a fresh mount of this blood contains a short oval 
bacillus, numerous round bodies usually said to be nuclei of 
leucocytes ; and a few polynuclear leucocytes. Repeated 
inoculations in the comb, wattles, skin and conjunctiva and 
oral mucosa of healthy chickens of various ages, with this 



242 Diseases of Poultry 

blood, fresh from under a nodule or a diphtheritic exudate, 
has failed to produce positive infective results. I have also 
tested it on pigeons with like negative results. 

"The exudates on the mucous membrane of the throat, 
mouth or larynx appear to be very much alike in all forms of 
the disease." 

The period of incubation is said to vary all the way from 
2 to 20 days. Gary reports a case in which a newly pur- 
chased Barred Plymouth Rock cockerel was placed in the 
pen with chickens just recovering from the disease. In 24 
hours this bird had developed a well marked case of sore- 
head on the wattles, comb, and eyelids. Apparently the 
period of incubation varies with the mode of transmission, 
virulency of the virus, the weather (rapid in damp, warm 
weather and slower in cool and dry weather) , and the age and 
condition of the chicken or pigeon. Chicks from broiling 
size up to 7 or 8 months old seem to be most susceptible. 
Chickens with large combs seem to be more susceptible than 
birds with small combs and wattles. 

Treatment. — The introduction of diseased birds into 
healthy flocks should be avoided. The same precautions 
should be practiced in the isolation of sick birds and dis- 
infecting the houses as is advised for roup (p. 161). When 
the disease is localized a small amount of individual treat- 
ment cures many cases. The crust or nodules should be 
removed and the places treated with creolin (2 per cent 
solution) or corrosive sublimate (to^o o") (P- 54) and dusted 
with iodoform. The iodoform may be put into the eye. 
When the disease is not far advanced one such treatment 
may be followed by daily greasing with the ointment rec- 
ommended on p. 55 or with vaseline or lard. In bad cases 
the iodoform should be used daily for a few days and then the 
ointment. 

Recently some work has been done on the production of 



Diseases of the SJdn 243 

artificial immunity to this disease. Manteufel ^ used a virus 
obtained by scraping off the softened epithehomas and 
macerating these in physiological salt solution. Chickens 
injected intravenously or subcutaneously with this virus 
showed an immunity which lasted from one and a half to two 
years. He also tried a hyperimmune serum but without 
success. Hadley and Beach ^ report good success with a 
vaccine prepared in the same way. Their vaccine was pre- 
pared by grinding pock scabs, diphtheritic membranes, etc., 
in a sterile mortar with physiological salt solution. This 
was then filtered through cotton and heated for one hour at 
55° C. In an infected flock 440 healthy birds were vaccinated 
with two doses of 1 cc, each at an interval of five days. 
Only four birds, or less than 1 per cent, in this lot developed 
noticeable symptoms. Of 75 control birds, 26 cases developed 
in three weeks. 

Hadley and Beach recommend this vaccine treatment as 
"especially applicable in large commercial and experimental 
flocks, where the greatest losses are sustained and where 
preventative measures can be most economically carried 
out. Breeders of pure bred and fancy fowls whose stock 
would be impossible to replace should also find it valuable." 

Prognosis. — The mortality among birds affected with this 
disease is said to be from 50 to 70 per cent. Gary (loc. cit) 
says : "I judge this a low per cent of losses if birds are left 
to themselves without proper care or treatment. But if 
individual treatment is patiently and regularly applied the 
mortality can be cut down to less than 20 per cent. If only 
the skin of the head, and the comb and wattles are involved, 

1 Manteufel, Arh. Kaiserl. Gesundheilsamf. Bd. 33, pp. 305-312, 
1910. 

^Hadley, F. B., and Beach, B. A., "Controlling Chiekenpox, 
Sorehead or Contagious Epithelioma by Vaccination." Proc. 
Amer. Vet. Med. Assoc, Vol. 50, pp. 704-712, 1913. 



244 Diseases of Poultry 

one should lose less than 10 per cent. ... But if the nasal 
passages and trachea are involved, or the intestines become 
involved, — good care and treatment may save 50 to 80 per 
cent." 

Edema of the Wattles 

Seddon ^ has recently described a disease of the wattles 
of fowls showing two very marked symptoms, namely 
(1) enlargement due to the presence of the inflammatory 
fluid and later (2) distortion with the formation of hard 
nodules of cheesy material in the wattle. He believes the 
disease is a localized form of fowl cholera, in which the causa- 
tive organism gains entrance to the wattles through scratches, 
etc. Septicaemia and death occur in a certain percentage of 
the cases. The disease usually runs a chronic course with 
subsequent replacing of the edematous fluid by fibrous 
tissue and results in the wattle assuming a crinkled appear- 
ance. 

Treatment. — "Cropping" of the wattles is recommended 
in some cases. The adoption of general sanitary measures 
is of most service in suppressing the disease. (See Chapter 
II.) 

1 Seddon, H. R., "A Disease of the Wattles of Fowls." Jour. 
Dept. Agr. Victoria, Vol. 12, pp. 426-428, 1914. 

, "Edema of the Wattles of Fowls Due to an Organism of the 

Pasteurella Group." Vet. Jour., Vol. 70, pp. 24-34, 1914. 



CHAPTER XVII 

Diseases of the Reproductive Organs 

The direct economic importance of poultry lies in the 
production of two things, viz., meat and eggs. For the 
production of the latter the poultryman is dependent upon 
the activity of the reproductive system of the hen. Under 
natural conditions in the wild state, the progenitors of the 
domestic fowl laid relatively few eggs. Judging by other 
species of wild birds of the present day, however, it is highly 
probable that the wild progenitors of poultry possessed the 
potential ability to lay much more than the usual number 
of eggs provided they were removed from the nest as fast as 
laid. Under domestication this practice of removing the 
eggs as fast as laid, together with the feeding of rich foods, 
and still other factors, lays heavy demands upon the repro- 
ductive system. It is not remarkable that an organ system 
which under conditions of nature produced from 12 to 
perhaps 30 units per annum, frequently breaks down under 
the strain of producing from 100 to 250 per annum of the 
same kind of units. It could only be expected that, as is 
actually the case, the egg producing organs would be partic- 
ularly liable to disease. 

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 

In order that the discussion of the diseases of the reproduc- 
tive organs may be intelligible it is desirable to preface it 
with a brief account of the anatomy and physiology of the 

245 



246 Diseases of Poultry 

organs of reproduction in the hen. Because of the fact 
that the corresponding organs in the male are less subject 
to disease, on the one hand, and are perhaps better under- 
stood by the poultryman, because of the prevalence of the 
practice of caponizing, on the other hand, it will not be 
necessary to discuss the male in detail in this connection. 

The organs concerned in egg production in the hen are 
shown graphically in Fig. 55. This picture and the accom- 
panying explanation of it will make clear the various parts 
of this organ system. All of the points shown in the figure 
may easily be demonstrated on a hen, killed during a period 
of laying activity. It should be noted that this picture is 
somewhat diagrammatic and not in accord with normal 
conditions in respect to at least two points. These are : (1) 
there are two eggs in the upper portion of the oviduct. 
Normally there would be but one there at a time. (2) The 
proportionate lengths of albumen portion, isthmus and 
uterus are not correctly indicated. 

In this figure the various numerals have the following sig- 
nificance : 

1. The ovary; region in which the ovules (later to be- 
come yolks) are still small in size. 

2. An ovule in an intermediate stage of development, 
larger than those at 1, but still not ready to pass into the ovi- 
duct to be laid. It is contained in a very vascular capsule, 
known technically as the follicle. 

3. 3. Ovules still larger and containing more yolk. The 
lower one is nearly ready to leave the ovary and pass down 
the oviduct. 

4. It will be noted that on all the larger follicles there is 
one region (forming a line) in which there are no blood vessels. 
This region (4, 4) is known as the stigma. Here the follicle 
wall breaks and allows the ovule (yolk) to leave the ovary 
preparatory to laying. 




c;: 



Fig. 55. — The reproductive or egg producing organs of a hen. See text 
for explanation of figures. (After Duval.) 



248 Diseases of Poultry 

5. An empty follicle in which the stigma has opened and 
the yolk passed out. 

6. Anterior end of the margin of the funnel (or infundibu- 
lum) of the oviduct or egg-tube. When an ovule is about to 
be discharged from the ovary these funnel lips or margins 
wrap around that portion of the ovary, so that the ovule 
may certainly pass into the oviduct and not into the ab- 
dominal cavity. 

7. Opening of the funnel. Through this opening the 
yolk passes into the oviduct. 

8. A yolk which has just passed through the funnel 
opening into the upper portion of the oviduct. 

9. 9. Albumen secreting joortion of the oviduct in which 
the greater portion of the albumen or white of the egg is 
secreted by glands in the walls of the oviduct in this region. 

10. First layer of albumen, or white, secreted about the 
yolk. From this layer are formed the chalazae, or cords of 
twisted, thickened albumen, at each pole of the yolk. 

11. Yolk, around which albumen is being secreted. 

12. The germinal disk. This is the living portion of the 
egg, from which the future chick develops, the main mass of 
yolk serving as food material for the developing embryo 
during the process. 

13. Anterior end of the isthmus of the oviduct. The 
primary function of the isthmus is to secrete about the egg 
the shell membrane, the dense white membrane closely ad- 
herent to the inside of the shell of an egg. 

14. The uterus, or shell gland, in which the shell is put on 
the egg. 

15. The rectum. 

16. The walls of the abdomen cut and folded back. 

17. External opening of the cloaca, or common space into 
which open (a) the rectum, (6) the oviduct and (e) the 
ureters, or kidney ducts. 



Diseases of the Reproductive Organs 249 

The processes concerned in the formation of an egg may 
be summarized as follows : 

Certain ones of the small oocytes in the ovary (Fig. 55, 
1) are all the time coming into a state of physiological ac- 
tivity, while the hen is in a laying cycle. These oocytes 
grow in size by the deposition of yolk until finally they are 
of the full size for laying. The time required for this final 
growth of yolks preparatory to laying is not far from 20 
days, on the average.^ 

The fully formed yolk, or ovum, leaves the follicle through 
a rupture of the latter along the stigma (Fig. 55). This 
process is called ovulation. As it leaves the ovary the ovum 
is received by the funnel of the oviduct. 

After entering the infundibulum the yolk remains in the 
so-called albumen portion of the oviduct about three hours 
and in this time acquires only about 40 to 50 per cent by 
weight of its total albumen and not all of it as has hitherto 
been supposed. During its sojourn in the albumen portion 
of the duct the egg acquires its chalazse and chalaziferous 
layer, the dense albumen layer, and (if such a layer exists 
as a distinct entity, about which there is some doubt) the 
inner fluid layer of albumen. 

Upon entering the isthmus, in passing through which 
portion of the duct something under an hour's time is 
occupied instead of three hours as has been usually main- 
tained, the egg receives its shell membranes by a process 
of discrete deposition. At the same time, and during the 
sojourn of the egg in the uterus, it receives its outer layer 
of fluid or thin albumen which is by weight 50 to 60 per 
cent of the total albumen. This thin albumen is taken in 
by osmosis through the shell membranes already formed. 

^ Cf. Gerhartz, W., "Uber die zum Aufbau der Eizelle notwendige 
Energie (Transformationsenergie)." Pfluger's Arch., Bd. 156, pp. 
1-224, 1914. 



250 Diseases of Poultry 

When it enters the egg in this way it is much more fluid 
than the thin albumen of the laid egg. The fluid albumen 
added in this way dissolves some of the denser albumen al- 
ready present, and so brings about the dilution of the latter 
in some degree. At the same time, by this process of diffu- 
sion, the fluid layer is rendered more dense, coming finally 
to the consistency of the thin layer of the laid egg. The 
thin albumen layer, however, does not owe its existence in 
any sense to this dilution factor, but to a definite secretion 
of a thin albumen by the glands of the isthmus and uterus. 

The addition of albumen to the egg is completed only after 
it has been in the uterus from five to seven hours. Before 
the acquisition of albumen by the egg is completed a fairly 
considerable amount of shell substance has been deposited 
on the shell membranes. For the completion of the shell 
and the laying of the egg from twelve to sixteen, or excep- 
tionally even more, hours are required.^ 

The main factor in propulsion of the ovum along the oviduct 
appears to be the peristaltic movements of the latter; it 
is probable that the cilia which line the cavity have some- 
thing to do with the rotation of the ovum on its chalazal 
axis. 

With this account of the anatomy and physiology of the 
female organs of reproduction in hand we may proceed to 
a consideration of their diseases. These diseases fall at 
once into two classes : («) those affecting the ovary, and (6) 
those affecting the oviduct. 

1 The foregoing account is based upon that given by Pearl and Cur- 
tis, Jour. Exper. ZooL, Vol. 12, pp. 123 and 124, 1912. 



Diseases of the Reproductive Organs 251 

DISEASES OF THE OVARY 

Atrophy of the Ovary 



By "atrophy" of the ovary is meant a diminution in size 
of that organ accompanied with a cessation of its physiolog- 
ical activity. It may shrink to the size and appearance 
which it has in a very young bird. The following sorts of 
atrophy of the ovary may be distinguished. The different 
sorts are separated from each other, not because of any 
difference in the end result, but because of the different 
etiological factors concerned. 

1. Physiological atrophy. 

a. Temporary. 

b. Permanent. 

2. Congenital atrophy (Pseud o-hermaphroditism). 

3. "Black atrophy." 

A physiological diminution in size or partial atrophy of 
the ovary occurs normally in fowls when after a period of 
laying they go into a more or less prolonged resting period. 
This condition of the ovary is usually (in fowls under two 
years old) only temporary. The organ resumes its normal 
size and activity after a time. In old birds (3 to 6 or more 
years of age) it not infrequently happens that the ovary passes 
into an atrophied condition, and remains permanently in that 
condition thereafter. In such cases the bird as a whole, and 
the ovary in particular, may be perfectly healthy, showing no 
sign of disease. Cases of permanent physiological atrophy 
of the ovary have been observed by the WTiters as follows : 

One case in a White Crested Black Polish. 

One case in a Cornish Indian Game. 

Several cases in Barred Plymouth Rocks. All of the 
latter were birds of very high fecundity (200 or more eggs 
per annum) in their pullet years. 



252 



Diseases of Poultry 



It should be noted that in what is here called permanent 
physiology atrophy of the ovary there is no associated change 
of the secondary sexual characters. That is, the hen does 
not assume cock plumage, spurs, enlarged comb and wattles, 
nor any other of the secondary sexual characters normal to 




Fig. 56. — Showing a case of incomplete hermaphroditism. In front of 
the line ab the bird has the characters of the male, behind it the char- 
acters of the female. The ovary was not functional in this bird. (Origi- 
nal.) 

the male. This indicates that in permanent physiological 
atrophy (just as is known to be the case in temporary) the 
only function of the ovary which is disturbed is that which is 
involved in egg formation. The activity of the organ in 
regard to producing an internal secretion which in some way 
controls the secondary sexual characters remains unchanged. 
As congenital atrophy of the ovary are to be classed cases of 



Diseases of the Reproductive Organs 253 

psuedo-hermaphroditism in fowls. In such cases a true, 
functioning ovary never develops. There may be a body 
which in gross features resembles an ovary, but it is inactive 
and does not take even the first steps in oogenesis (egg 
formation) . 

There may or may not be a testis like body present in 
these cases. Not only is the egg producing activity absent 
in such cases, but also in many of them at least, the internal 
secretion normally produced by the ovary is lacking also. 
The bird then takes on some or all of the secondary sexual 
characters of the male. The appearance of such a bird is 
shown in Fig. 56. 

As "black atrophy" of the ovary is here designated the 
peculiar diseases of the ovary first observed more than a 
century ago in England as occurring in pheasants. The 
striking feature of the disease is that under its influence the 
bird assumes the plumage appropriate to the male. The 
change in the ovary and oviduct induced by the disease 
appears to be an atrophy accompanied by a blackening which 
is probably a true melanosis. The following account of an 
outbreak of this disease about fifty years ago by Hamilton ^ 
is of interest. "In the years 1858, 1859, and 1860 this 
peculiar alteration of structure in the female organs of 
generation in the Pheasants was particularly prevalent in 
some parts of England. I had the opportunity of examin- 
ing many specimens, and was able completely to confirm 
Mr. Yarrell's views on this subject. Indeed, the majority 
of the birds were young females, many of them being birds 
of the year, some being in their first molt. I found also 
that the plumage varied and approached that of the male, 
not in accordance with the age of the bird, but with the 

^ Hamilton, E., "On the Assumption of the Male Plumage by the 
Female of the Common Pheasant." Proc. Zool. Soc, London, 1862, 
pp. 23-25. 



254 Diseases of Poultry 

amount of disease of the generative organs. The greater 
the destruction of the ovarium and oviduct, the nearer the 
plumage assimilated that of the male. 

"For example, in birds with the hen-plumage pre- 
dominating, the ovarium and oviduct exist as in the 
fecundating hen, the small ova lying in considerable numbers 
in the ovarium, the ovarium and oviduct showing dark lead- 
colored masses of disease. 

"In birds with the plumage of the male in a measure ex- 
ceeding that of the female, the ovarium is considerably 
diminished in size, dark-colored, and containing only a 
few blackened ova ; the oviduct is spotted with dark patches, 
and considerably contracted. 

"And thirdly, in birds with the male plumage predominat- 
ing over that of the female, the ovarium is reduced to a 
small dark amorphous mass, resembling the coagulated blood, 
the presence of ova cannot be detected, and the oviduct is 
almost entirely obliterated at its junction with the ovarium. 
Thus it seems that there are three distinct phases in this pe- 
culiar abnormal state of the generative functions. 

"I have also noticed that, in most cases where the male 
plumage is in excess of the female, the tail-feathers are 
particularly long, some being as much as 19 inches in length. 

"Although Mr. Yarrell states that this condition of the 
female generative organs is not confined to the PhasianidcB, 
and that it has occurred in the gold and silver pheasants, 
partridges, pea-fowls, common-fowl, common pigeon, king- 
fisher, the common duck, and that other classes of animals 
are liable to an influence similar in kind, particularly among 
insects and Crustacea, yet this disorganization is rarely 
observed except among the Phasianidce, and particularly 
when these birds are produced in a domestic state, i.e., 
on the present system of breeding pheasants in preserves. 
Very few hatiues take place in which some of these birds 



Diseases of the Reproductive Organs 255 

(generally designated males) are not killed and mixed in- 
discriminately with the heaps of the slain. 

" As to the cause of this disorganization, if it occurred only 
in the old female, or if it were a common occurrence among 
birds either of different genera or of the same genus, it could 
be easily accounted for ; but when it is generally found exist- 
ing among a class of birds which are bred in vast numbers in 
a particularly artificial manner, it leads one to suppose that 
the cause must be connected with this condition." 

In regard to all sorts of atrophy of the ovary it should be 
said that there is no known way to treat them. Such cases 
when they appear must be accepted by the poultryman as 
one of the vicissitudes of the business. 

Gangrene of the Ovary 

Salmon and other writers on poultry diseases following 
him have designated as gangrene a condition of the ovary 
relatively often found at post-mortem. Salmon's discussion 
of the matter is as follows : "This disease is quite common 
with all varieties of poultry. On examination of the ovary 
after death, the ova are found in different stages of develop- 
ment, but instead of being yellowish-pink in color, with the 
blood vessels well defined, they are brown or black, easily 
crushed and the contents broken down into a putrid liquid. 
Death is caused partly by peritonitis and partly by the ab- 
sorption of the products of decomposition. 

"The cause of this trouble is not well understood. It 
has been attributed to the birds being too fat, thus compress- 
ing the ovary and hindering the evolution of the ova. As 
it may occur in birds which are not fat and as it is evidently 
accompanied by the penetration and multiplication of 
bacteria, it is possibly an infectious disease." 

We have not been able to find anywhere in the literature 
that there has been a thorough investigation of this disease. 



256 Diseases of Poultry 

Ovarian Tumors 

Tumors and cancerous growths on the ovary are not un- 
common. These include several sorts of interest to the 
pathologist, but not to the practical poultryman. From 
the literature it appears that at least the following (and 
probably other) kinds of new growths are found to occur 
on the ovary with greater or less frequency. 

1 . Benign tumors, of several types, including yolk tumors. 

2. Carsinoma. 

3. Dermoid cysts. 

For a further discussion of -the general question of malig- 
nant new growths see Chapter XX. 

It is quite clear that none of these conditions can be 
successfully treated by the poultryman. In the first place 
any cancerous condition of the ovary or oviduct will practi- 
cally never be diagnosed until after the bird's death. In 
the second place if it were diagnosed surgery would offer the 
only possible means of relief, and operations on the ovary 
are much too formidable for any one but the expert to 
undertake. 

Abortion of Eggs 

Regarding this matter Wright ^ has the following to say : 
"This is not to be confounded with the laying of soft eggs. 
These last are laid when mature, and usually by fat birds; 
but when violently driven or startled, or subject to violence 
of any kind, or even if suddenly and greatly terrified, im- 
mature yolks are sometimes detached from the ovary and 
expelled. This is most likely to happen with pullets not yet 
laying but about to lay, and being a real miscarriage or 
abortion, may wreck the constitution of a valuable bird 

1 Wright, L., "The New Book of Poultry." London, 1902, 
p. .574. 



Diseases of the Reproductive Organs 257 

unless attended to. It is distinguished from the other by 
not occurring as a rule in fat birds ; by the immature and 
small size of the yolk or yolks ; generally also by hemor- 
rhage ; and always by signs of illness of chicks afterwards. 
Any such bird should be placed for a few days in a quiet and 
comfortable but rather dark pen, with a nest in case of need, 
and fed on a little bread and milk. Quiet rest is the main 
thing, l)ut 20 grains bromide of potassium may be dissolved 
in half a pint of drinking water. With such care the event 
may be entirely recovered from." 

Yolk Hypertrophy 

There are a number of cases on record where the yolks 
formed by the ovary have been very much larger than nor- 
mal. These "giant yolks" are due to a diseased condition 
of the organ, possibly contingent upon too much forcing for 
egg production. Such cases have been described by Gurlt,^ 
and more recently by von Durski." 

When yolks become very large in this way they may 
break loose from the ovary without any rupture of the follicle 
wall along the stigma but a breaking or tearing loose of the 
stalk or pedicle of the follicle. 

Failure of Follicle Wall to Rupture 

Closely connected with the last diseased condition is one 
discussed by von Durski in which the follicle wall fails to 
rupture and release the yolk. In consequence of this, in the 
case described by von Durski, the follicle wall became 
stretched and pulled out into a long and very much twisted 

1 Gurlt, Mag. f. d. ges. Tierheilk. 1849. 

2 von Durski, "Die pathologische Veranderungen des Eies und 
Eileiters bei den Vogeln." Berlin, 1907. 



258 Diseases of Poultry 

stalk. This stalk held the hard and decayed yolk fast to 
the ovary. In cases of this kind the stalk sometimes breaks, 
and the yolk inclosed in the follicle and with the end of the 
stalk attached, passes down the oviduct acquiring albumen, 
membranes and shell. In still other instances the stalk breaks 
and the follicle and contained yolk drops into the abdominal 
cavity. 

DISEASES OF THE OVIDUCT 

Diseases of the oviduct are relatively common and cause 
a steady and probably in the aggregate rather large loss to 
the poultryman. Fortunately some of the diseases of the 
oviduct are more amenable to treatment than are those of the 
ovary. Further these diseases in many cases show plain ex- 
ternal symptoms at a relatively early stage. Then they may 
be recognized and treated while it is still possible to effect 
a cure. This is usually not the case with ovarian diseases. 

The general external symptoms of the commoner diseases 
of the oviduct are very much like those of constipation. The 
poultryman watching his birds is indeed rather likely to con- 
fuse the two. But if so no harm is done. The thorough clean- 
ing out of the alimentary tract, and stimulation of the liver 
indicated in the treatment of constipation is the very best 
thing to be done in cases of inflammation and similar disorders 
of the oviduct. 

Anatomy of the Oviduct 

In order to understand more clearly the pathological 
conditions of the oviduct it is well to consider briefly at this 
point some facts regarding the normal anatomy and histology 
of this organ. Here we shall follow the accounts given by 
two of the authors in earlier papers.^ 

The oviduct of a laying hen is a large, much coiled tube 

1 Curtis, M. R., "The Ligaments of the Oviduct of the Domestic 



Diseases of the Reproductive Organs 259 

filling a large part of the left half of the abdominal cavity. 
It is suspended from the dorsal body wall and lies dorsal 
to the abdominal air sac. Its anterior end is expanded 
into a large funnel which is spread out beneath the ovary 
in such a way that the mouth of the tube faces the ovary. 

The oviduct is divided into five main parts, readily dis- 
tinguishable by gross observation. Beginning at the 
anterior end, there are, in order : (a) the infundibulum or 
funnel (Fig. 57, A) ; (6) the albumen secreting portion (Fig. 
57, B) ; (c) the isthmus (Fig. 57, C) ; (d) the uterus or 
" shell gland " so called (D) ; and (e) the vagina (E). The 
functions of these different parts have already been indicated 
(cf. pp. 248). 

The chief features in the finer structure of the oviduct 
may be described as follows : 

Two muscular layers, an outer longitudinal and an inner 
circular layer can be distinguished in all parts of the oviduct. 
The inner surface of the oviduct is thrown into a number of 
primary longitudinal ridges. The epithelium over these 
ridges forms secondary folds. In the uterus the ridges as 
such are lost, and instead there are a number of leaf-like 
folds of the inner surface. 

Three types of glands are described : (1) Unicellular 
epithelial glands occurring between the ciliated cells in all 
parts of the oviduct except the anterior portion of the funnel. 

(2) Glandular grooves. These are accumulations of gland 
cells at the bottom of the grooves between the secondary 
folds of the epithelium. These are found only in the funnel 
region. But there they occur well towards the anterior end. 

(3) In all parts of the oviduct between the funnel and the 
vagina there is a thick layer of glands beneath the epithe- 

Fowl." Me. Agr. Expt. Stat. Bui. 167, pp. 1-20, 4 plates, 1910. 
Surface, F. M., "The Histology of the Oviduct of the Domestic 
Hen." Me. Agr. Expt. Stat. Aun. Rept., 1912, pp. 395-430, 5 plates. 



260 



Diseases of Poultry 




Fig. 57. — Oviduct removed from a laying bird and cut open along the point 
of attachment of the ventral ligament. It is opened back, showing the 
characteristic glandular regions. A, funnel ; B, albumen-secreting re- 
gion ; X, isthmus ring ; C, isthmus ; D, shell gland ; and E, vagina. 
(Original.) 



Diseases of the Reproductive Organs 261 

Hum. These are called tubular glands. They consist of 
long convoluted and branched tubules which open to the 
lumen of the oviduct by short epithelial ducts. These 
tubular glands are homologous, structurally at least, with 
the glandular grooves of the funnel. The tubular glands 
reach their greatest development in the albumen secreting 
region. Histologically the unicellular epithelial glands 
present a similar appearance in all parts of the oviduct ex- 
cept the vagina. In this latter region the cells are longer 
and much narrower and have a slightly different arrangement 
than in other parts of the oviduct. 

The walls of the tubular glands consist of large gland cells 
which in the albumen portion and the isthmus of a laying 
hen have small, irregularly shaped, dark staining nuclei 
which lie well towards the basal ends of the cells. In these 
two regions the protoplasm of the cells contains rather 
coarse granules which vary greatly in size. 

The line of demarcation between the albumen region and 
the isthmus is characterized by the absence of these tubular 
glands in that region. The cells of the tubular glands in 
the albumen region and in the isthmus present the same 
histological appearance. 

In the uterus the cells which form the tubular glands have 
a somewhat different appearance. The nuclei of these cells 
are large with regular outlines and are situated near the 
center of the cells. The protoplasm is very finely granular 
and is quite different from the coarsely granular condition 
found in other parts of the oviduct. 

The tubular glands or any homologous structures are 
entirely absent from the vagina. Only the unicellular 
epithelial glands occur there. 



262 Diseases of Poultry 

Inflammation of Oviduct 

This is one of the most important and common diseases of 
the oviduct. It may occur alone or in association with other 
morbid conditions of this organ. 

Diagnosis. — Combining the accounts of various observers, 
it may be said that a bird affected with inflammation of 
the oviduct at first shows indications of a desire to lay with- 
out being able to produce eggs, or it may lay eggs containing 
more or less blood or eggs without shells or small and mis- 
shaped eggs containing albumen but no yolk, or finally the 
yolk may be dropped without any covering of albumen or 
shell. There is a continual and violent straining (some- 
times resulting in apoplexy). The wings are dropped and 
the feathers puffed out. As the inflammation increases 
there is high temperature, straining and an effort to rub 
the abdomen upon the ground. In later stages the bird 
becomes dull, indisposed to move and the comb is pale. 

Etiology. — There are probably to be distinguished three 
classes of causes which lead to inflammation of the oviduct. 
These are : 

1. Physiological; from irritation due to too frequent 
la»ying or from too stimulating foods or condiments. 

2. Traumatic ; from irritation due to too large eggs, or to 
the breaking of eggs within the oviduct, or to similar causes. 

3. Specific infection ; it is probably that alone or in com- 
bination with the causes classed under 1 and 2 a specific 
infection of the lining membranes of the oviduct may occur. 

In an inflamed oviduct there very often is a copious sero- 
fibrinous exudate. This hardens about any foreign body 
(egg, broken egg, etc.) which may be in the oviduct, and by 
accretion causes this foreign body to increase in size. This, of 
course, makes it still more irritating, which in turn provokes 
further inflammation of the walls of the duct. One some- 



Diseases of the Reproditdlve Organs 263 

times finds relatively enormous masses of material in a 
diseased oviduct, which have been built up in this way. 
There is an extensive literature on these "egg concrements" 
or "yolk tumors" built up either in the oviduct or in the 
abdominal cavity by hardened fibrous exudate, about an 
original basis of a broken, or miscarried, or aborted yolk or 
yolks. It is not necessary to review this literature here as 
it is only of interest to the specialist. 

Treatment. — If this disease is to be dealt with at all the 
treatment must be individual, since it is something which 
will never affect considerable numbers of the flock at the 
same time. If individual treatment is to be successful it 
must be begun at a relatively early stage of the disease. 
Therefore, it is important that a bird showing the symptoms 
which have been described above should be isolated at once 
and as a first step in the treatment given a purgativ^e dose of 
Epsom salts (see p. 53). All stimulating foods such as meat, 
green cut bone, linseed meal and similar substances, as 
well as condiments like condition powders, pepper, etc., 
should be immediately taken away from the bird. A light 
ration and plenty of green food should be given. Salmon 
recommends following the purgative with | drop of tincture 
of aconite root 3 times a day. Equally eftective, and much 
easier to administer, will be found 1-10 gr. aconite root 
tablets (see p. 55). 

Prolapse of the Oviduct (Eversion) 

It not infrequently happens, from one cause or another, 
that the lower portion of the oviduct becomes everted and 
projects from the vent as a mass of red or purplish tissue. 
This condition is known as prolapsus of the oviduct. 

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis of this diseased condition is 
simple and consists merely in the observation of the pro- 



264 Diseases of Poultry 

lapsed oviduct. If there is a mass of red or bloody tissue 
projecting from the vent, one is safe in diagnosing prolapsus. 
The only point which needs particular attention in the di- 
agnosis is as to the degree to which prolapsus has occurred 
when the bird is discovered. The importance of this lies 
in the fact that on it depends the treatment which it is 
advisable to give. Where the prolapse is only partial and 
is discovered early it is advisable to treat it by the methods 
outlined below. If, on the other hand, the prolapse is 
extensive and has existed for some time before the bird is 
seen so that the mass of tissue has turned a blue or purplish 
color or has been pretty extensively picked and torn by the 
other birds in the pen, then it is useless to carry on any treat- 
ment and the proper thing to do is to kill the .bird at once. 
Etiology. — Prolapse of the oviduct may be caused by a 
number of different things. It is observed not only in 
old hens, but, in our experience, quite as frequently in 
pullets. The fundamental cause of the condition is, of 
course, a weakness of the oviduct walls and ligaments, 
chiefly in respect to their muscular portions, which makes 
the oviduct unable to stand the strains put upon it in egg 
production. The immediate cause may be either : 

1. Straining to lay a very large (double yolked) egg. 
This is perhaps the most common cause. 

2. Straining to lay when there is an obstruction in the 
oviduct (egg bound). 

3. Constipation. The rectum full of hardened feces 
stimulates all organs in that region of the body to expulsive 
reflexes. 

4. Ziirn says that oftentimes feces may become lodged 
in the cloaca in a sort of blind pocket, and then set up the 
same expulsive reflexes as an egg in the cloacal or vaginal 
regions normally does. In the effort to expel this foreign 
body the oviduct may become everted. 



Diseases of the Reproductive Organs 265 

The most serious thing about prolapsus is that if not dis- 
covered very shortly after it occurs it is almost sure to result 
fatally, because the everted portion will become so badly 
infected as to cause blood poisoning, or the protruding mass 
of tissue will be picked and torn by the other birds in the pen 
until there is no hope of repair, whatever the treatment. 

Treatment. — As stated above, the advisability of treating 
prolapsus depends upon its degree and duration before dis- 
covery. 

In treating this condition the first thing to endeavor to 
do is to remove the cause. That is, if the bird is constipated 
give it a rectal enema of warm soapy water, followed by \ 
teaspoon of Epsom salts by the mouth. If there is a lump 
of feces lodged in the cloaca this should be carefully removed. 
The protruding mass of tissue should be washed with warm 
1 to 1000 bichloride of mercury solution, or a warm ^ per 
cent cresol solution. After the protruding parts are 
thoroughly cleansed they should be well greased with vase- 
line, or with" the ointment already recommended (p. 55). 
Then with the fingers well greased an effort should be made 
to replace the protruding mass in the body. In doing this 
one should proceed with the greatest gentleness. In most 
cases with care and patience it is possible to reduce the 
prolapsus, that is, to get the extruded tissue back into the 
body in approximately its normal position. 

After the parts have been carefully replaced in normal 
position the next point to be considered in the treatment 
is to insure that they shall stay there. That is to say, it 
is necessary some way to bring about a healthy degree of 
contraction of the muscular walls of the oviduct so as to 
hold the parts in place permanently. In order to do this 
Salmon recommends the use of ergot. Robinson follows 
Salmon in this recommendation. It should be said, however, 
that it is doubtful whether this treatment is advisable. 



266 Diseases of Poultry 

Ergot is a rather violent poison for poultry. It seems likely 
that the treatment recommended by Salmon and Robinson 
is based on a theory that the action which ergot has on the 
mammalian uterus will be duplicated on the fowl's oviduct 
rather than upon actual experience in administering the 
drug to poultry. The measure recommended by Ziirn to 
bring about a healthy contraction of the replaced oviduct 
in cases of prolapsus would seem to be simpler and on the 
whole more likely to yield desirable results than the ergot 
treatment. Ziirn recommends that a lump of ice be placed 
in the cloaca after the prolapsed oviduct is returned to its 
place and that this treatment be followed up for some hours. 

The bird should be kept in a small coop, partly darkened, 
where there will be every inducement for it to remain per- 
fectly quiet. The success of the treatment depends very 
much on keeping the bird quiet for a few days. It should 
be fed only a light and unstimulating ration with plenty of 
green food. 

Prognosis. — If discovered early enough prolapsus is 
curable. 

Obstruction of the Oviduct C' Egg Bound") 

Perhaps the commonest of all diseased conditions of the 
oviduct is that which leads the poultryman to say that a 
bird is "egg bound." By this is meant that there is some- 
thing in the oviduct which the bird is not able to pass to 
the outside and which in turn prevents the normal passage 
of eggs. In many cases this is not properly speaking a 
disease at all but rather an accident. Other cases, however, 
depend upon a true diseased condition of the oviduct. 

Diagnosis. — The symptoms of this trouble, as they are 
usually described, consist chiefly in the obvious fact that the 
hen is trying to lay but cannot extrude the egg. If this 



Diseases of the Reproductive Organs 267 

struggle is kept up long enough the bird will become ex- 
hausted, and show it by keeping quiet, with roughened 
plumage and the general aspect of being ill. Sometimes the 
egg can be felt from the vent. 

All these general symptoms of egg bound condition may 
be observed in mild form in a great many cases with birds 
which subsequently lay the egg without trouble. In many 
instances the extrusion of an egg which is finally successfully 
laid is attended with a good deal of difficulty. There are 
all degrees of gradation between this somewhat difficult 
but still normal laying and the condition of complete obstruc- 
tion of the oviduct where the egg cannot be passed at all. 
The practical consideration to which this leads is that one 
should not be too hasty in applying treatment for the egg- 
bound condition. A diagnosis of the trouble, in other words, 
should not be finally settled upon until there remains no 
doubt that the hen is not going to pass the egg without help 
from the outside. 

It must also be remembered that in many cases of obstruc- 
tion of the oviduct, the obstruction is so far up that it cannot 
be felt from the outside. In such cases the diagnosis must 
be made upon the general behavior of the hen, and in partic- 
ular in regard to going frequently on the nest without 
laying. 

Etiology. — In considering the causes of obstruction of 
the oviduct it is necessary to distinguish between several 
different sorts or categories. This may be done as follows : 

1. Simple "egg bound" condition, in which 43^nonmd_egg^ 
is lodged in the uterus or vagina and cannot be expelled. 
This inability to expel the egg may be due to any one or a 
combination of the following causes acting together : 

a. Egg of too large size, so that it is mechanically difficult 
or impossible to force it through the natural passage. Robin- 
son regards this as the most common cause. 



268 Diseases of Poultry 

b. Exhaustion (true physiological fatigue) of the muscu- 
lar walls of the oviduct. This condition results after long 
continued and unsuccessful attempts to expel the egg. It 
leads to 

c. Atony and paralysis of the duct, in which the muscular 
walls are incapable of making any effective contraction at 
all. 

2. Complicated "egg bound" conditions in which the 
fundamental source of the trouble is not simply mechanical, 
and in which usually the portions of the oviduct anterior 
to the uterus are involved. In this general category the 
following sorts of cases are to be included. 

a. Atony and paralysis of the upper portions of the ovi- 
duct. This condition may exist for a long time without 
being recognized. 

b. Inflammation of the oviduct leading to the formation 
of fibrous exudate which accumulates in the duct, until it 
may form a mass of relatively enormous size (usually with 
one or more yolks as a nucleus) completely obstructing the 
duct, and eventually leading either to gangrene or rupture 
of the walls, or both. 

c. Volvolus, or twisting of the oviduct about its own 
long axis, completely obliterating the cavity. 

d. Stenosis or stricture of the oviduct. This may result 
from several causes. One frequent one is that in laying a 
very large egg the oviduct wall becomes torn to greater or 
less degree, and subsequently heals. The scar tissue con- 
tracts the cavity and a stricture is thus caused. 

Treatment. — Whether treatment is or is not likely to be 
effective depends upon which of the two main categories 
above defined any given case belongs to. Simple obstruc- 
tion of the oviduct may be successfully treated. In cases 
of complicated obstruction treatment is not indicated, for 
a variety of reasons. These conditions are in the first place 



Diseases of the Reproductive Organs 209 

difficult to diagnose, and offer little prospect of successful 
cure even after a diagnosis has been made. 

The best advice which has come to our attention for the 
treatment of the simple egg bound condition was published 
some years ago in the English journal Poultry and is 
here quoted verbatim : 

" It is a good plan to watch those birds that are about to 
lay. Should they visit the nest frequently during the course 
of the day and leave without depositing an egg, it is almost 
certain that something is wrong- and when a pullet is in 
such a state there are three good remedies that may be tried. 
The first is : Take the bird up gently, and hold her so that 
her stern is over the mouth of a jug of boiling water, that 
the steam arising therefrom may get to the parts and help 
to relax and procure delivery of the egg. If this has not the 
desired effect after an hour's rest in a quiet coop, the vent 
should be oiled gently with a feather, and the hen given a 
powder composed of 1 grain of calomel and 1-12 grain of 
tartar emetic. The powder may be mixed in a bolus of food, 
and put into the bird's crop. If it be acting properly, a 
marked improvement should be noticeable in the bird a few 
hours afterwards, while a second powder given two days 
subsequently will probably complete the cure. It is advis- 
able for a while to feed the fowl sparingly on a somewhat 
low diet, withholding any fat forming food, and giving lime- 
water to drink, after the system is rid of the powder. The 
second remedy was advocated by Dr. H. B. Greene, . . . 
and is best applied when the egg can be felt. It is : Let 
an assistant, seated on a chair, hold the bird firmly on his 
knees on its back, with the vent directed away from him. 
Seating yourself opposite, with the finger and thumb of the 
left hand outside the bird's body, push the egg firmly but 
carefully towards the vent, until it is plainly visible, and, 
keeping it in that position, with a bradawl in the right hand 



270 Diseases of Poultry 

puncture the egg shell, evacuate the contents of the egg 
with an egg-spoon, and afterwards with a pair of tweezers 
break down and take out the shell piece by piece until as- 
sured by passing the finger into the vent, that the cloaca is 
empty. Special care must be taken to avoid injuring the 
bird with the point of the awl ; and one's assistant must 
maintain a steady and firm hold on the fowl. A third method 
of relieving an egg bound hen was recommended by a 
correspondent in our issue of June 10, 1898, and has since 
been frequently tried by several poultry keepers, and found 
very efficacious. ' When a hen is in that state I hold her over 
some hot water, bathing the vent at the same time. After 
this I use a small penknife (blunt) in the following manner : 
Placing the edge of the blade along the first finger so that 
the end is level with the finger end, I push the finger with 
the knife into the vent until they touch the egg ; then I 
begin to scrape until I hear that I have scraped the rind or 
skin away from the egg (I mean outside the egg). The hen 
is then placed on the nest, and I will guarantee she will lay 
in 20 minutes, or in most cases even less than that. I got 
this advice from a man who has kept poultry on a small 
scale for 50 years. I have tried it several times, and have 
never known a hen to be egg bound a second time. This 
method, it would appear, saves the egg. The great thing 
throughout is to keep the bird quiet, and in future to avoid 
extra fat forming food.'" 

Prognosis. — Good in cases of simple obstruction if taken 
in hand early; bad in all cases of complicated obstruction. 

Rupture of the Oviduct 

In some cases of complicated obstruction, and in cases of 
severe inflammation the walls of the oviduct may break 
and allow the contents to escape into the abdominal cavity. 



Diseases of the Reproductive Organs 271 

In such cases death usually ensues in a relatively short time 
as a result of peritonitis. These cases are incurable ; in- 
deed the trouble is usually not known till after the bird dies. 
The lower portion of the oviduct (vagina) or the cloaca may 
be ruptured in passing a very large egg. If the wounds 
made in this way are relatively small they will usually heal 
without any trouble. If, on the other hand, such tears are 
extensive they may very easily become infected, and unless 
treated properly in accordance with the general directions 
given in Chapter XXI for the treatment of wounds, the bird 
will die of blood poisoning. 

Lately in some experimental work we have shown that 
extensive ruptures of the upper part of the oviduct (albumen 
portion) will heal spontaneously and leave no trace of the 
injury. We have removed large pieces from the oviduct 
wall in this way, only to find the bird laying in a perfectly 
normal way in a month or so after the operation. At 
autopsy only a small scar or else no trace whatever of the 
wound could be found. 

Gangrene of Oviduct 

This may result from severe and complicated obstruction. 
What is meant by "gangrene" is that walls of the oviduct 
die, and putrefy. This causes general blood poisoning from 
which the bird dies. Gangrene of the oviduct most frequently 
follows severe cases of complicated obstruction where there 
is a mass of fibrous exudate deposited in the oviduct. There 
is not the slightest hope of successfully treating such cases. 

Breaking of Egg in Oviduct 

It sometimes happens that an egg in the upper portion 
of the oviduct, before it has acquired any shell, is by acci- 



272 Diseases of Poultry 

dent broken. There is a belief common amongst poultry- 
men that this is always immediately fatal. There is but 
little discussion of the subject in the literature, but our 
experience here indicates that two sorts of results may follow 
the breaking of an egg in the oviduct. These are : 

1. An inflammatory condition of the oviduct is induced 
leading to copious secretion from the glands of the albumen 
portion of the duct and the isthmus. There is also a copious 
fibrous exudate, and the final outcome is a severe case of 
complicated obstruction of the oviduct. Death in these 
cases may be delayed for a long time after the original 
accident. In the absence of inflammation recovery may 
possibly occur. 

2. Death within a short time (2 to 3 hours) after the 
breaking of the egg, without visible lesion of any organ of 
the body. The oviduct is not even inflamed. Absolutely 
the only things which are not normal in such cases are (o) 
the broken egg in the oviduct, and (6) the fact that the bird 
is dead. We have had several such cases come to autopsy. 
They are very puzzling. In them is to be found the basis 
for the poultryman's belief as to the fatal character of this 
accident. In reality it seems probable that in these cases 
the thing which caused the egg to be broken was also the 
cause of the death of the bird. That is, a blow, or any sort 
of sudden shock violent enough to break an egg in the ovi- 
duct might also very well be the cause of death. Such cases 
need further study. 

Abnormal Eggs 

Owing to various diseased conditions of the oviduct many 
different kinds of abnormal eggs are produced by fowls. 
The explanation of the diflFerent types of such eggs is usually 
tolerably clear if one gets definitely in his mind the normal 
physiology of egg production as outlined above. We shall 



Diseases of the Reproductive Organs 273 

consider here only some of the more important general classes 
of such abnormal eggs. Such eggs are very interesting from 
the scientific standpoint but are of relatively little practical 
significance to the poultry keeper because of the rarity of 
their occurrence. 

Soft-shelled Eggs. — These are eggs laid without a suffi- 
cient amount of shell substance covering the shell membrane. 
The immediate cause lies in a failure of the uterus to function 
properly. Regarding this class of abnormal eggs Wright 
has the following to say : " Soft eggs may be caused by lack 
of shell-material, which, if discovered, points to the remedy, 
the most rapid being pounded raw oyster-shell. Or they 
may be caused by the fowls being driven or frightened, in 
which case they soon cease, and nothing need be done un- 
less the injury has been so severe as to prematurely detach 
small and unripe yolks, when the case becomes a real abor- 
tion, or they may be caused by condiments and too much 
animal food, spices in particular leading frequently to all 
sorts of trouble with the egg-organs, particularly in the 
Mediterranean races of poultry. A few small doses of Ep- 
som salts or jalap, and cessation of the extra stimulus, 
will remedy this. But far the most usual cause is simple 
over-feeding. A little careful investigation will find which 
is in fault, and that will indicate the appropriate remedy. 
Want of shell material is far less common than it used to be ; 
over-feeding or over-stimulation probably more so." 

Small, Yolkless Eggs. — These little eggs, variously called 
"wind-eggs," "cock eggs," "witch eggs," "luck eggs," etc., 
are familiar to every poultry keeper. They contain no 
definitely formed yolk, and to the casual observer seem to 
consist of nothing but a small shell filled with white. The 
laying of one of these eggs is popularly supposed to mark 
the end of a laying period. This belief is without founda- 
tion in fact. They may be produced at any time. Un- 



274 Diseases of Poultry 

published data collected over a period of years at this Station 
in regard to such eggs indicate that three factors are funda- 
mentally concerned in their production. These are : 

1. The bird must be in an active laying condition ; the 
more pronounced the degree of physiological activity of 
the oviduct, the more likely are these eggs to be produced. 

2. There must be some foreign body, however minute, to 
serve as the stimulus which shall start the albumen glands 
secreting. This foreign body may be either a minute piece 
of hardened albumen, a bit of coagulated blood, a small 
piece of yolk which has escaped from a ruptured yolk, etc. 

3. It seems likely, though this is a point not yet definitely 
settled, that ovulation (i.e., the separation of a yolk from 
the ovary) must precede the secretion of albumen around 
the foreign body to form one of these eggs. 

Double and Triple Yolked Eggs. — Eggs with two yolks 
are, of course, quite common. They result from a disturb- 
ance of the time relations of ovulation, of such nature that 
two yolks get into the oviduct at nearly the same time and 
become surrounded by common layers of albumen. 

Eggs with three yolks are very rare. An egg of this kind 
laid by a pullet at this Station is shown in Fig. 58. 

Studies made by one of the authors ^ have thrown consider- 
able light on the general problem of the cause and nature of 
multiple-yolked eggs. Summarized some of the chief re- 
sults were as follows : As to frequency it appears that the 
Maine Station flock, over a long period of time, produces 
531 single-yolked eggs to every double-yolked egg. That is, 

1 Curtis. M. R., "Studies on the Physiology of Reproduction in 
the Domestic Fowl." VI. Double- and Triple-Yolked Eggs. Biol. 
Bui., Vol. XXVI, pp. 55-83, 1914. 
• "Studies on the Physiology of Reproduction in the Domes- 
tic Fowl." XI. Relation of Simultaneous Ovulation to the 
Production of Double- Yolked Eggs. Jour. Agr. Research, Vol. Ill, 
pp. 375-385, 1915. 



Diseases of the Reproductive Organs 



275 



only two tenths of 1 per cent of the eggs are double-yolked. 
The ratio of double to single yolked eggs is less than twice 
as high as the ratio of twin to single births in the human 
family. 

All birds are not equally likely to lay double-yolked eggs. 
In fact the great majority of birds never lay anything but 
single-yolked eggs. There are, however, birds which possess 
a tendency to lay double-yolked eggs. Such an individual 
may produce several such eggs. It has been further found 




Fig. 56. — Triple-yolketl cj; 



(.Uriginal.) 



that a bird which possesses the tendency to lay double- 
yolked eggs is not equally likely to produce them at any age. 
She is most likely to produce them when she is young. 
Eighty per cent of all the double-yolked eggs produced by 
the Station flock are produced by birds less than eight months 
old. We have only a very few records of birds which have 
laid double-yolked eggs after their first adult molt. 

It has been usually supposed that double-yolked eggs 
are caused by the simultaneous entrance of two yolks into 
the egg tube and the consequent common passage of the two 



276 Diseases of Poultry 

yolks through the duct. A careful study of the structure 
of all the double-yolked eggs produced by the Station flock 
shows that in only a very small per cent of the cases (about 
16 per cent) have the two yolks passed the entire length of 
the duct together. In such cases the two yolks are inclosed 
in a common thin layer of white membrane, the chalazal 
membrane, and have only one pair of chalazse. They also 
have common albumen envelopes as well as common egg 
membrane and shell. 

Since the formation of each egg part (chalazal membrane 
and chalazfe, thick albumen egg membrane, and shell) is 
confined to a particular part of the oviduct, a study of the 
number of secondary parts which are common to the two 
yolks of a double-yolked egg shows the level of the duct 
where the two yolks came together. Such a study carried 
out on all double-yolked eggs produced by the large flock of 
birds owned by this Station shows that the two yolks unite 
at every level of the duct from the mouth of the funnel to 
the very end of the albumen secreting portion. It shows 
further that the number of eggs of any given structure ob- 
served is exactly equal to the number expected on the assump- 
tion that the union of the two yolks occurs indiscriminately 
at every level of the duct from the mouth of the funnel to 
the beginning of the isthmus or egg membrane secreting 
portion. When two eggs unite after the first egg has received 
its membrane the result is two eggs at the same time. 

The structure of the egg has shown us that in a majority 
of cases the two yolks of a double-yolked egg have not passed 
the entire length of the duct together. On a moment's 
reflection we see that there was never any a priori reason 
for the assumption that the cause for the production of a 
double-yolked egg was necessarily the simultaneous dis- 
charge of two yolks from the ovary into the oviduct or 
egg tube. The only condition necessary for two yolks to 



Diseases of the Reproductive Organs 277 

be inclosed in the same egg membrane is that they enter 
the membrane secreting portion of the oviduct together. 
There are at least three possibihties besides simultaneous 
ovulation which may bring two yolks together before they 
reach this portion of the oviduct. First, the first yolk may 
be delayed at any level of the duct forward to the point 
where the egg membrane begins to be secreted ; second, the 
first yolk may be returned up the oviduct and then come 
back in company with the second yolk ; and third, a yolk 
may be ovulated into the body cavity and picked up by the 
oviduct shortly before or after the ovulation of another 
yolk. It is, therefore, unnecessary to assume that the 
production of a double-yolked egg represents simultaneous 
or even an abnormally rapid succession of ovulations, since 
any of these delays may have been as long as the normal 
period between ovulations. 

A study of the structure of the eggs and the egg records 
of the birds leads to the conclusion that double-yolked eggs 
do not necessarily represent two simultaneous or even nearly 
simultaneous ovulations ; but in about a third of the cases of 
double-yolked eggs the time between the two ovulations must 
have been unusually short since the birds which laid these 
double-yolked eggs each laid a normal egg on the preceding 
day. A study of the egg structure of these double-yolked 
eggs, where the time between the ovulations is known to 
have been abnormally short, shows that they have been 
simultaneous in only a small per cent of the cases. In fact 
the two yolks have come together at every level of the duct 
in front of the beginning of the isthmus. 

A study of the ovaries of birds which had recently pro- 
duced double-yolked eggs showed that each of the two 
yolks was discharged from a normal separate follicle exactly 
as are the yolks of successive single-yolked eggs. 

From these recent studies of double-yolked egg produc- 



278 Diseases of Poultry 

tion it is certain that some individual hens have an inherent 
tendency to lay double-yolked eggs, while a great majority 
of hens never lay anything but normal single-yolked eggs. 
A bird with the tendency to double-yolked egg production 
is more likely to produce double-yolked eggs when she is 
quite young than later in her life. 

The two yolks of a double-yolked egg may enter the 
oviduct simultaneously and pass the entire length of the 
duct together receiving an entire common set of egg 
envelopes, or they may come together at any level of the 
oviduct from the funnel mouth to the beginning of the 
isthmus. It is highly probable that the two ovulations 
may be either simultaneous or that they may be separated 
by any period up to the normal time which elapses between 
ovulations. 

The production of a double-yolked egg is evidently seldom 
caused by the simultaneous discharge of two normal separate 
follicles into the oviduct. More often it is caused by the 
successive discharge of separate follicles at times varying 
from simultaneity to the normal period and by the subse- 
quent union of the eggs in the duct due to a difference in 
the rate of passage of the successive eggs. 

Inclusion in Eggs. — The number of different foreign sub- 
stances which at one time or another have been found in- 
closed in eggs is great. The list includes blood streaks or 
spots, blood clots of firm consistency and often considerable 
size, lumps of bacteria, worms, fecal matter, etc., etc. 

From the practical standpoint the only inclusions which 
need consideration are blood spots. Many inquiries are annu- 
ally received at this Station as to what causes these spots and 
what to do to get eggs which will be free from them. These 
inquiries are most frequent in the spring months. The 
only thing which can he done in such cases is to candle the eggs 
and sell only those ivhich shotv no spots. Hens which are 



Diseases of the' Reproductive Organs 279 




Fig. 59. — Showing shapes of abnormal eggs sometimes found. (From von 
Durski after Landois.) 



280 Diseases of Poultry 

perfectly normal often lay eggs with blood spots, especially 
in the spring of the year when laying is heavy. The blood 
which makes the spot probably comes in most cases from the 
ovarian follicle. When this ruptures a little blood escapes 
into the oviduct and is caught up in the albumen. The so- 
called "liver" or "meat" spots in eggs are in nearly every 
case thoroughly hardened, well packed together, blood clots. 
They may be of large size. These inclusions- do not repre- 
sent, as they are sometimes said to, portions of the oviduct 
wall which have been torn off and inclosed in the egg. 

Eggs of Abnormal Shape. — There are many other kinds 
of abnormal eggs besides those liere discussed, but as they 
have no practical significance it is not desirable to devote 
further space to them. In closing this section we append 
some figures showing in outline some of the curiously shaped 
eggs which have been found. 

J^ent Gleet (Cloacitis) 

This is a true venereal disease of poultry. It usually 
begins with a hen, but is transmitted in copulation to the 
male, and by him to other birds in the flock. 

Diagnosis. — Salmon gives the following clear account of 
the symptoms : " The first symptom observed is the fre- 
quent passage of excrement which is voided in small quanti- 
ties almost as rapidly as it reaches the cloaca. Often the 
bird endeavors to drop excrement wdien cloaca is entirely 
empty. This action is due to the tenderness and irritability 
of the cloaca which gives to the bird the sensation of fullness, 
and produces spasmodic contractions. If an examination 
is made the mucous membrane is found in the early stages 
to be red, dry, swollen and hot. In a day or two a discharge 
makes its appearance. It is, at first, thin and watery, but 
soon becomes white, purulent, and offensive. This dis- 



Diseases of the Reproductive Organs 281 

charge collects upon the skin and feathers about the vent, 
obstructs the passage and irritates the parts with which 
it comes in contact. The soiled skin becomes red and in- 
flamed, it may be abraded by friction or by the bird picking 
at it, and thus sores or ulcers are started which may become 
quite troublesome." 

Etiology. — The cause of the disease has not yet been 
thoroughly worked out. Wright suspected it to be identical 
with human gonorrhea because of the similarity of symptoms, 
infectiousness, etc. However, he has not been able to isolate 
the Gonococcus, or specific germ of gonorrhea from affected 
birds. 

Lewis and Clark ^ report an outbreak of vent gleet among 
recently purchased Orpingtons at the poultry plant on the 
New Jersey college farm, as a result of which the average egg 
production for the year was but 25 per cent of the theoreti- 
cal. The percentage of fertility of the eggs was low, about 
60, although apparently good vigorous male birds were used. 
The disease was found to be very hard to overcome, and it is 
concluded that in dealing with it the best method lies in 
the destruction of the affected fowls. 

Treatment. — The following is the treatment outlined by 
Wright : "Any hen found with it should at once be isolated, 
and the male bird carefully examined, and if necessary also 
isolated. Give 30 grains Epsom salts, and twice a day in- 
ject first a 4 per cent solution of cocaine, and immediately 
afterwards a solution of nitrate of silver 4 grains to the 
ounce. The fifth day commence a small copaiba capsule 
daily, and inject acetate of lead, 1 dram to the pint. Feed 
rather low meanwhile, and dust any sore places outside with 
iodoform or aristol. If not well after 2 or 3 weeks, we would 
kill the bird, as the disease is not quite free from danger; 

1 Lewis, H. R., and Clark, A. L., "Poultry Diseases." N. J. Agr. 
Expt. Stat. Rept., 1913, pp. 276-279. 



282 Diseases of Poultry 

for if the operator should touch his eyes accidentally before 
he has cleansed his hands, the result might be a most violent 
inflammation." 

Diseases of the Male Reproductive Organs 

A number of diseases of the male reproductive organs have 
been described, but they are all of no practical significance, 
for the reason that no poultryman ought ever to use as a 
breeder a male bird that ever had any disease of these organs, 
whether it had been "cured" or not. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
White Diarrhea 

Of all the diseases which the poultryman is called upon to 
fight, there is probably none so destructive, year after year, 
as the disease (or diseases) known as " white diarrhea." The 
loss of chicks ascribed to this cause varies in different years 
and in different places from 10 to 90 per cent. It is perhaps 
not too much to say that more than 50 per cent of the chicks 
hatched throughout the country are lost from white diarrhea 
in its various forms. The number of inquiries concerning 
this disease which are annually received, and the amount 
of space devoted to it by the poultry press, lead one to be- 
lieve that "white diarrhea" is perhaps the worst enemy with 
which the poultryman must contend. 

White diarrhea is more common among artificially hatched 
and brooded chicks than among those which have been 
hatched and cared for by hens. However, it is by no means 
unknown among the latter. Many poultrymen report as 
heavy mortality from this disease among hen hatched and 
reared chicks as from those which were incubated and 
brooded by artificial methods. 

Almost any chick that comes out of the shell apparently 
healthy on the 21st day will live for the first week. If 
white diarrhea is going to strike the brood they usually begin 
to show symptoms about the end of the first week. The 
heavy loss of chicks from this disease occurs between the ages 
of one and three weeks. Where the brood is badly affected 

283 



284 Diseases of Poultry 

chicks may continue to die until the fourth or fifth week. 
On the other hand if a brood goes through its first three 
weeks of life without being attacked by this disease it is 
practically safe from its ravages. White diarrhea then may 
be said to be limited to the first three weeks of the chick's 
life so far as serious mortality from it is concerned. The 
reason for this no doubt is that the digestive system of 
chicks under three weeks old is so delicate that even a 
slight disturbance makes a very serious handicap for the 
chick. 

Etiology. — Within recent years a large number of studies 
concerning the cause, prevention and cure of white diarrhea 
have been conducted. Investigations have been carried on 
by state and national institutions as well as by many private 
individuals. Consequently a large number of alleged causes 
of the disease are given by different writers. Among these 
may be mentioned : Debilitated breeding stock, improper 
incubation, improper brooding, overheating, chilling, poor 
ventilation, over-crowding, poor or improper food and filth 
as well as specific bacteria, fungi or other parasitic organisms. 

It is doubtful if many of the cases of true white diarrhea are 
caused by physical or mechanical agents. In most cases 
true white diarrhea appears to be an infectious disease. 
Such disease we know is caused by some form of parasitic 
organism. Without doubt improper incubation, brooding 
and feeding, resulting in weakened chicks, very often lay 
the foundation for the attacks of parasitic organisms. In 
many cases these faulty methods of handling the eggs and 
chicks appear to be the real cause of the disease while they 
are really only indirect causes. 

From this it should not be understood that such things 
as poor food, poor brooding and weakened breeding stock 
are of no importance in the study of white diarrhea. It is 
just exactly these predisposing factors which result in chicks 



White Diarrhea . 285 

with weak constitutions, easily overcome by disease germs. 
Without (loul)t the points at which most progress can be 
made in combating such diseases are in the methods of in- 
cubation and in the care of the chicks for the first three weeks 
of their Hves. Nevertheless it should not be forgotten that 
the death of the chick is caused by the ravages of some mi- 
nute parasitic organism. 

Within recent years several investigators have discovered 
organisms which they believe to be the specific cause of 
white diarrhea. Three of these may be mentioned at this 
place: (1) Coccidium. tenelluin or cuniculi producing the 
disease called "coccidiosis." (2) Bacterium jyullorum pro- 
ducing "bacillary white diarrhea" and (3) Aspergilhis 
fumigatus and allied species, producing aspergillosis or 
brooder pneumonia of chicks. Of these the first two dis- 
eases will be considered in some detail in the following 
paragraphs. Aspergillosis is treated in a separate section 
of this chapter (cf. p. 173). 

Intestinal Coccidiosis 

In 1908 Morse ^ published a preliminary account of some 
investigations on the cause of white diarrhea. He claimed 
that microscopic examination of the intestines of chicks 
dying with this disease revealed the presence of large num- 
bers of protozoan organisms which he identified as Coccidium 
tenellum. Cole and Hadley ^ of the Rhode Island Experi- 
ment Station reported finding a similar organism in white 
diarrhea chicks. They identified it as Coccidium cuniculi. 
These two species of coccidium are so nearly alike that it is 

1 Morse, G. B., "White Diarrhea of Chicks." U. S. Dept. of 
Agr. Bur. Anim. Indus. Circ. 128, pp. 1-8, 1908. 

2 Cole, L. J., and Hadley, P. B., "Blackhead in Turkeys." 
Rhode Island Agr. Expt. Stat. Bui. No. 141, pp. 138-272, 1910. 



286 Diseases of Poultry 

very difficult to distinguish them except by prolonged study 
of their life cycles. 

Various species of coccidia have long been known to in- 
fest many domestic animals. A number of these have 
been described in fowls and other birds. In many cases 
they produce very serious lesions. But the contention of 
Smith ^ that in many cases these parasites are more or less 
normal inhabitants of the digestive tract seems fairly well 
founded. 

Coccidiosis in birds and the relation of coccidia to the 
disease known as entero-hepatitis have been discussed on 
pages 71 and 94. On page 73 a detailed description of the 
life history of a typical coccidium is given. It is supposed 
that it is the same coccidium causing entero-hepatitis in 
turkeys which is related to white diarrhea. For further 
description of this organism the reader is referred to the 
preceding chapter. 

Hadley and Kirkpatrick ^ have reported some feeding 
experiments with these coccidia in which they have been 
able to produce the disease in chicks several days or weeks 
old. As will be noted later, it is claimed that infection with 
the bacterium of bacillary white diarrhea must take place 
during the first two or three days of the chick's life if it is 
to produce the disease. It is possible that these facts may 
be of some use in distinguishing the two forms of this disease. 

Diagnosis. — The symptoms of coccidiosis are similar to 
those of other forms of white diarrhea (cf. p. 292). The 
only exception is that according to Morse the ceca are always 
distended with yellowish-white cheesy matter. In other 

1 Smith, Theobald, "Amoeba meleagris." Science, N. S., Vol. 32, 
pp. 509-512, 1910. 

2 Hadley, P. B., and Kirkpatrick, W. F., "Further Investigations 
upon White Diarrhea of Chicks." Successful Poultry Jour., Vol. 14, 
pp. 18-19, 1909. 



]]liite Diarrhea 287 

forms of white diarrhea this may or may not be the case. 
These different forms of white diarrhea have been too Httle 
studied as yet to permit of an exact differential diagnosis 
on external symptoms even supposing that ever to be pos- 
sible. 

Up to the time of writing no further work has appeared 
to substantiate the claims that this coccidium is an impor- 
tant cause of white diarrhea. On the other hand, work 
with the bacillary form of this disease has been carried on 
by a number of investigators. At the present time it 
appears that by far the greater number of epidemics of white 
diarrhea are caused by the bacterium described below. 

Bacillary White Diarrhea 

In May, 1908, Rettger and Harvey ^ published a paper 
on " Fatal Septicemia in Young Chickens or White Diarrhea." 
From a large number of observations and experiments they 
came to the conclusion that white diarrhea was caused by a 
bacterium. A number of later papers by Rettger and his 
associates have appeared since then. In these it has been 
clearly proven that at least one form of white diarrhea is 
caused by a bacterium. 

Rettger took chicks which had died with all the symptoms 
of white diarrhea and by the ordinary bacteriological methods 
obtained pure cultures of a bacterium which had certain 
definite reactions and habits of growth. By these methods 
this bacterium can be distinguished from other kinds. To 
this species of bacteria he gives the name Bacterium pidlorum. 
If entirely healthy chicks are inoculated with the pure 
culture of this bacterium they almost invariably show 

1 Rettger, L. F.,and Harvey, S. C, "Fatal Septicemia in Young 
Chickens or White Diarrhea." Jour. Med. Research., Vol. 18, pp. 
277-290, 1908. 



288 Diseases of Poultry 

symptoms of white diarrhea and in many cases die. To 
cite only one case ; at the Storrs Experiment Station (Bui. 
68) chicks 12 hours old were fed cultures of this organism. 
During twenty-five days allotted to the experiment the 
mortality of the infected chicks was 76 per cent, while that 
of the controls was only 4 per cent. 

In many cases Rettger was able to find Bacterium pullorum 
pure in the artificially infected birds. Further he was able 
to obtain the same bacterium from a large number of differ- 
ent chicks gathered from widely different localities. 

These results of Rettger and his associates have been 
confirmed not only by their own later work but also by 
others. Thus Jones ^ was able to produce the disease in 
healthy chicks by inoculation with this organism. Inocu- 
lation of chicks 24 hours old gave a mortality of 82.5 per 
cent, while in the controls it was only 2 per cent. Gage ^ 
isolated this organism from the ovaries of adult fowls and 
proved by inoculation that it would produce the disease in 
young chicks. 

Conclusive evidence has been produced that it is only 
during the first few days of its life that a chick is liable to 
infection with this disease. It has been shown at the 
Storrs Station ^ that the greatest danger of infection lies 
within the first 48 hours, but that infection may take place 
up to four days or occasionally later in the case of weak 
chickens. The same writers have shown that in the majority 

1 Jones, F. S., "Fatal Septicemia or Baeillary White Diarrhea of 
Young Chickens." Report of N. Y. State Vet. College for 1910, 
pp. 111-129. 

2 Gage, G. E., "Notes on Ovarian Infection with Bacterium 
pullorum (Rettger) in the Domestic Fowl." Jour. Med. Research, 
Vol. 24, pp. 491-496, 1911. 

' Rettger, L. F., Kirkpatrick, W. L., and Stoneburn, F. H., 
"Baeillary White Diarrhea in Young Chicks." Conn. (Storrs) 
Agr. Expt. Stat. Bui. 74, pp. 155-185, 1912. 



J]liite Diarrhea 



289 



of cases the hen is the source of the infection. It has been 
fairly well proven that female chickens recovering from 
white diarrhea become bacillus carriers. In such birds 
these bacteria are found particularly in the ovary. In this 




Fig. 60. — The normal ovary of a laying hen. 

and Jones.) 



(After Rettger, Kirkpatrick 



organ they cause many of the developing ova to become 
abnormal and undergo degeneration as shown in Fig. 61. 
INIany of the yolks which do not degenerate contain these 
bacteria. These infect the chick which hatches from such 
an egg. These chicks then serve to infect others in the 
incubator or in the brooder. This is undoubtedly one of 



290 



Diseases of Poultry 



the reasons that incubator chicks suffer more from this 
disease than hen hatched chicks. In the incubator there 
are eggs from a large number of different hens. There is a 
great probabihty that one of the mothers may be a bacillus 




Fig. 61. — An ovary from a hen infected with B. pullorum, showing the 
degenerating and discolored ova. (After Rettger, Kirkpatrick and 
Jones.) 



carrier and one such infected chick may spread the disease 
to all the others. With a hen there is much less chance 
that any of the eggs she broods comes from an infected 
bird. Hence, while some broods will be infected, others 
will not and one easily gains the impression that hen hatched 
chicks are less susceptible. This point will be discussed in 
connection with prevention (p. 299). 



White Diarrhea 



291 



The following figure taken from the Storrs Experiment 
Station Bulletin OS shows diagrammatically how the infection 
perpetuates itself from the hen to egg and the chick and 
from the recovered chick back to the hen again. 

Recently Rettger ^ and others have shown that healthy 
adult fowls may become infected both by contact with 
infected fowls and through infected litter. This adds 




Fig. 62. — Showing how bacillary white diarrhea perpetuates itself in the 
breeding stock. (After Rettger and Stoneburn.) 



another means by which the infection can be spread through 
the flock. 

In this connection it is worth pointing out that Smith 
and Ten Broeck - have found that the bacillus of fowl 
typhoid shows very many points of resemblance to B. 
puUorum. The only differences found between these bacilli 
are in respect to their ability to ferment the sugars, dextrose, 

1 Rettger, Kirkpatrick and Jones, loc. cit. 

- Smith, T.,and Ten Broeck, C, "A Note on the Relation between 
B. pullorum (Rettger) and the Fowl Typhoid (Moore). Jour. Med. 
Research, Vol. 31, pp. .547-557, 1915. 



292 Diseases of Poultry 

mannite and maltose. Even these differences appear to be 
lost if strains of B. pullorum are used which have been cul- 
tivated in the laboratory for some time. These studies, 
however, are not extensive enough to justify as yet the 
assumption that the two organisms are identical. 

Diagnosis of White Diarrhea. — The symptoms of white 
diarrhea are in general the same for the different forms of 
the disease. They may be briefly stated as follows : The 
affected chicks appear stupid and remain under the hover or 
hen much of the time. They isolate themselves from the 
rest of the flock and appear indifferent to what goes on 




Fig. 63. — Ten day White Leghorn chicks showing symptoms of bacillary 
white diarrhea. (After Rettger and Stoneburn.) 

about them. Their feathers become rough and the wings 
droop (cf. Fig. 03). There is progressive loss of weight. 
The birds eat little or nothing and appear unable to pick 
up their food. Their actions in this direction are chiefly 
mechanical. The characteristic whitish discharge from the 
vent very soon makes its appearance. The discharged mat- 
ter may be creamy or sometimes mixed with brown. The 
discharged matter is more or less sticky or glairy. In many 
cases it clings to the down in sufficient quantity to plug up 
the vent. This condition is known as "pasting up behind." 
This latter condition, however, is not necessarily indicative 
of white diarrhea. 



}Vhite Diarrhea 293 

Many of the chicks chirp or peep constantly or will utter 
a shrill cry apparently of pain, when attempting to void the 
excreta. These sounds are often characteristic of the 
disease. 

In many cases the chicks present the appearance of being 
"short backed" or "big bellied." Woods ^ describes this as 
follows : 

"The weakling is almost always big-bellied, the abdomen 
protruding to the rear so that it bunches out behind, well out 
of line with the vent, with the result that the chick looks as if 




64. — Normal ten day White Leghorn chicks. 
Stoneburn.) 

the tail piece and backbone has been pushed forward and in 
just above the vent " (cf. Fig. 63). 

In some cases the chicks die with but little warning and 
show few of the above symptoms. In other cases the sick 
chick will last a long time showing all the symptoms men- 
tioned. 

Post-mortem examination often reveals but few lesions. 
One of the most striking things is the loss of flesh if the dis- 
ease has lasted for some time. The alimentary canal is 
usually nearly empty except for some slimy fluid. The 

^ Woods, P. T., "Reliable Poultry Remedies." Quincy, 111. 



294 Diseases of Poultry 

organs are all very pale. The liver may have a few streaks 
showing congested areas. Some of the unabsorbed yolk 
may or may not be present. There is considerable variation 
in its appearance. It is not usually putrid unless the chick 
has been dead for some time. 

The following post-mortem appearances in bacillary 
white diarrhea are reported by Rettger and Stoneburn : ^ 

" Crops — Empty or partially filled with slimy fluid or 
with food. 

"Lungs — Apparently normal. (Tubercles not ob- 
served.) 

" Liver — Pale, wath streaks and patches of red. These 
apparently slightly congested areas are usually large in size. 

" Kidney and Spleen — Apparently normal. 

" Intestines — Pale, and for the greater part empty. A 
small amount of dark grayish or brownish matter frequently 
present. 

" Ceca — With few exceptions but partially filled with a 
grayish soft material. Only occasionally cheesy or firm 
contents. 

" Unabsorbed Yolk — Usually present varying in size 
from a pea to a full-sized yolk. The color may vary from 
yellow to brownish green or nearly black. In consistency 
there is also much variation. It may appear perfectly 
normal, distinctly gelatinous, or watery. Frequently it is 
observed in the character of custard and again more or less 
dry and firm. LTnless the chick has been dead for some 
time the yolk is usually not found putrid, but merely stale. 

"The chick as a whole appears more or less anaemic and 
emaciated. The muscles of the wings, breast and legs may 
be almost completely wasted away." 

1 Rettger, L. F., and Stoneburn, F. H., "Bacillary White Diarrhea 
of Young Chicks." Conn. (Storrs) Agric. Exper. Stat. Bull. 60, 
pp. 33-57. 1909. 



White Diarrhea 295 

The chief difference between this and coccidiosis appears 
to be in the contents of the ceca (cf. p. 286). 

Undoubtedly the most specific method of diagnosing 
white diarrhea is by bacteriological examination. Rettger 
and Stoneburn ^ have perfected methods for the examination 
of eggs, dead chicks and the ovaries of laying hens. By 
these methods it is possible for a bacteriologist to determine 
whether the chicks or the laying stock are infected with 
Bacterium imUorum. Such examination cannot be made by 
the poultryman. In some states the Experiment Station 
will undertake such examinations, in others it will be 
necessary to depend upon private laboratories. The fol- 
lowing bacteriological description of Bacterium pullorum is 
taken from Rettger, Kirkpatrick and Jones.' It is inserted 
here for the convenience of bacteriologists who may wish to 
study this disease. 

Description and General Characteristics of Bacterium 
Pullorum 

Morphology, Staining Properties, etc. — The organism is 
a long, slender bacillus (0.4-0.5/u, X 2-4/*) with slightly 
rounded ends. It usually occurs single, chains of more than 
two bacilli being rarely found. It is a non-motile, non- 
liquefying, non-chromogenic, facultative anaerobe. In its 
microscopic appearance it resembles the bacillus of typhoid 
fever. It is stained readily by the ordinary basic aniline 
dyes. It does not stain by the Gram method ; neither does 
it retain its color when treated with dilute acetic and mineral 
acids. The organism does not produce spores, or at least 
they have never been observed, 

1 Loc. cit. 1911. 

2 Rettger, L. F., Kirkpatrick, W. L., and Jones, R. E., "Baeillary 
White Diarrhea of Young Chicks." Conn. (Storrs) Agr. Expt. 
Stat. Bui. 77, pp. 263-309, 1914. 



296 Diseases of Poultry 

The thermal death point (moist) is 56 to 57° C. for an 
exposure of fifteen minutes. The optimum temperature is 
35 to 37° C. 

Cultural Characters. Agar plates. — • Small white colonies 
make their appearance within twenty-four hours. They 
increase in size slowly and seldom attain more than one 
millimeter in diameter, even after three or four days' in- 
cubation. Under the microscope they appear yellow and 
vary in form, being oval, spindle-shaped or round. The 
surface is usually marked with one or two rosette figures. 

Slant Agar. — The ordinary streak growth is quite visible 
in twenty-four hours, and resembles that of the typhoid 
bacillus. It spreads little and remains delicate even after 
prolonged incubation. When, however, the entire surface 
of the agar is streaked, with a platinum loop, the charac- 
teristic cultural appearance of the common pus streptococcus 
is obtained. The growth is not continuous and compact, 
but consists of minute, delicate colonies, which may be so 
small as to require a magnifying lens for detection. This 
cultural characteristic is of extreme importance in identifi- 
cation work. 

Gelatin Plates. — Small white colonies may be seen in 
forty-eight hours. They remain small for several days, 
and only under exceptional conditions do they develop into 
characteristic surface colonies which to a certain extent 
resemble the grape-leaf colony of B. typhosus. 

Gelatin Stab. — A delicate growth occurs in forty-eight 
hours along the whole line of inoculation. In litmus milk 
little or no apparent change occurs within the first forty- 
eight hours, after which the milk becomes slightly acidified 
without any signs of coagulation of the casein. 

Gas Production in Sugar Bouillon. — Negative results were 
obtained with maltose, lactose, saccharose, inulin, and 
dextrin bouillon. Dextrose and mannite were attacked, 



White Diarrhea 297 

however, with both acid and gas production. In the dextrose 
fermentation tubes about 20 per cent of the closed arm 
is filled with gas, and the mannite tubes average about the 
same. The gas consists of CO2 and H in the ratio of 1 : 3. 
Some of the strains do not produce gas in any of the sugar 
media, though acid production is quite apparent. 

Indol and Nitrate Production. — Neither indol nor nitrate 
could be detected in Dunham's peptone solution at the end 
of one week's growth in the incubator. 

Quite recently still another method for the diagnosis of 
this disease has been proposed. Jones ^ points out that the 
bacteriological examination of eggs is an unsatisfactory 
method of detecting fowls that are harboring this germ in the 
ovary. This arises from the fact that with such an infected 
hen only occasional eggs may contain this organism. Yet 
such a hen is a source of danger to the flock. Jones then 
suggested the use of the agglutination test. This test con- 
sists in adding a very small quantity of the blood serum of a 
suspected fowl to a dilute (milky) suspension of the bacteria. 
If the fowl has the disease the bacteria will clump together 
and settle to the bottom of the test tube so that the liquid 
above will appear clear. If the bird is not affected the 
bacteria will not clump together and the suspension will 
retain its milky appearance. 

This test has now been used by Jones, Gage ^ and Rettger, 
Kirkpatrick and Jones. ^ In all of these studies it has proved 
to be an important aid in the recognition of this infection in 
laying hens. 

1 Jones, F. S., "The Value of the Macroscopic Agglutination 
Test in Detecting Fowls that are Harboring Bacterium pullorum." 
Jour. Med. Res., Vol. 27, pp. 481-495, 1913. 

2 Gage, G. E., "On the Diagnosis of Infection with Bacterium 
pullorum in the Domestic Fowl." Mass. Agr. Expt. Stat. Bui. 148, 
pp. 1-20, 1914. 

» Loc. cit. 1914. 



298 Diseases of Poultry 

This like the bacteriological test cannot be made by the 
poultryman. It must be done in a well equipped laboratory 
and under the direction of a competent bacteriologist. The 
practicability of the test depends upon the value of the 
fowls. 

Treatment. — The treatment of wdiite diarrhea like that 
of most other poultry diseases consists in prevention rather 
than cure. Proper care of the breeding birds, proper incu- 
bation and proper care and feeding of the chicks will do 
much to prevent the ravages of this disease. A chick that 
lacks constitutional vigor, or that is weak from improper 
incubation or improper brooding falls an easy prey to an 
infectious organism. On the other hand, a healthy vigorous 
chick will resist the attacks of such an organism for some 
time. 

However, care in housing and raising the chicks is not 
sufficient to prevent this disease in a badly infected flock. 
Undoubtedly, in the light of the researches reviewed in the 
preceding pages, the best point to attack this disease is the 
laying hen. Recent work has shown that these infected 
hens can best be identified by the agglutination test. Where 
it is possible to apply this test, all reacting birds should be 
removed from the breeding pens and not allowed to come in 
contact with the healthy birds. Such a method accom- 
panied by care and cleanliness in raising the chicks will 
practically eradicate the disease. 

There are many poultry plants, however, where it is 
impossible or impracticable to apply this test. Under such 
circumstances there is no certain way of identifying the 
bacillus carriers in the breeding pens. The following 
method will greatly aid in reducing the mortality from this 
disease although it will not eradicate it completely. 

In the first place every incubator and brooder should be 
thoroughly disinfected before using and between each hatch. 



White Diarrhea 299 

This can easily be done by spraying with cresol soap (see p. 
17) or some other good disinfectant. This will insure that 
no germs remain from the preceding hatch. Next some 
kind of wire trays or baskets should be provided which hold 
from 12 to 15 eggs each. These should be made with a cover 
and of such shape that they will conveniently fit into an 
incubator tray. On the eighteenth day the eggs should be 
placed in these trays and the lids carefully fastened. The 
ideal method is to have the eggs from each hen in a separate 
tray but where trap nesting and pedigree breeding are not 
carried out this is impracticable. The chicks should be 
allowed to hatch in these trays and to remain in them until 
they are 48 hours old. By this time they have passed the 
most critical stage and they may then be put together in the 
brooder. By thus isolating the chicks in small groups only 
a few of these groups will usually prove to be infected. It 
has already been pointed out that one infected chick will 
spread the disease to an entire incubator or brooder if al- 
lowed free range among its neighbors at the critical period. 
This method has been used with marked success on a number 
of large poultry plants. 

During the last few years there have appeared many 
articles in the poultry press regarding the use of sour milk 
as a cure or preventive of white diarrhea. The Storrs 
Experiment Station has carried out careful experiments in 
this connection extending over several years. Their results 
are summed up in a recent bulletin.^ 

"Sour milk feeding has a most beneficial influence on the 
growth of chicks and in lessening mortality from all causes. 
As an important agent in the prevention and suppression 
of white diarrhea its value is somewhat doubtful, and fur- 
ther investigation is necessary before unqualified statements 

^ Rettger, Kirkpatrick and Jones, loc. cit., 1914. 



300 Diseases of Poultry 

can be made. Milk which is soured by the Bulgaricus 
bacillus of Metchnikoff possesses no distinct advantages 
over naturally soured milk ; on the other hand, it has several 
disadvantages. Its method of preparation involves consider- 
able time and care, and it is not relished by chicks to the 
same extent as naturally soured milk." 

Other remedies have been proposed for this disease but 
most of them appear to have but little value. Kaupp ^ 
recommends a sulphocarbolate treatment as follows : To 
each gallon of drinking water he dissolves one 30-grain 
tablet sulphocarbolate compound of zinc, sodium and 
calcium, 6 grains of bichloride of mercury and 3 grains of 
citric acid. With this mixture he reports good results. 
Horton " at the Oregon Experiment Station used this 
treatment on 50 infected chicks of which only seven sur- 
vived. He says : " From the manner in which the 
chicks died off and from the general appearance of the 
seven that remained alive it seems e\ident that sulphocar- 
bolates in the treatment of white diarrhea (bacillary form) 
have very little if any efficiency." 

1 Kaupp, B. F., "Some Poultrv Diseases." Colo. Agr. Expt. 
Stat. Bui. 18.5, 1912. 

2 Horton, G. D., " Sulphocarbolates in the Treatment of White 
Diarrhea (bacillary form) of Young Chicks." Amer. Vet. Rev., 
Vol. 46, pp. 321-322, 1914. 



CHAPTER XIX 

Other Diseases of Chickens 
Leg Weakness 

The term "leg weakness" is sometimes used by poultry- 
men to indicate the lameness due to rheumatism in adult 
birds. Regarding this form of the disease see page 201 . The 
more usual use of the term "leg weakness" is to denote a 
disease or ailment which is found in growing chicks from one 
month to six months of age. It is said to be more common 
among cockerels than pullets and is more frequent in the 
heavier than the lighter breeds. The chief cause of the 
trouble seems to be that in birds growing rapidly and fed 
heavily the weight sometimes increases faster than the 
strength. This results in a weak kneed, wobbling bird. 
The disease is sometimes ascribed to other causes such as 
overcrowding, close, unventilated quarters, overheating, 
etc. Salmon says, " It may develop in young chickens kept 
in brooders in which the heat is not properly distributed or 
where there is too much bottom heat, also in those which 
are kept constantly upon wooden floors." Regarding these 
cases Robinson says, " Where such conditions are present the 
leg weakness is more likely to be an accompaniment of 
diseases which plainly show other symptoms." 

Diagnosis. — The symptoms are indicated in the name of 
the disease. It first appears as an unsteadiness in the walk. 
This may gradually become worse until the bird is unable to 
stand alone and is constantly tumbling over. The birds are 

301 



302 Diseases of Poultry 

found sitting while eating and are inclined to walk very little. 
When the trouble first appears there is little else wrong with 
the bird. The eye and comb are bright and healthy, the 
appetite is good. Later, however, the bird being weaker 
than the others gets less grain and becomes thin, feathers out 
poorly and is a distressed object. It is said that rheumatism 
can be distinguished from leg weakness by the swelling of the 
joints in the former disease. 

Treatment. — This, consists chiefly, of course, in removing 
the cause. Since the most common cause is the overfeeding 
with fat producing foods, the amount of these should be 
reduced. The weak birds should be removed to a pen by 
themselves. Substitute bran, wheat and oatmeal for the 
corn and cornmeal. Give skim milk, if possible, instead of 
water. Feed ylenty of green food. This is one of the most 
important measures. Sanborn recommends rubbing the 
legs with tincture of arnica and adding ^ teaspoonful of 
tincture of nux vomica to each quart of drinking water. 

Aspergillosis or Pneumomycosis 

This disease, which is discussed on page 173, not only occurs 
in hens but it is also a very common and fatal disease in 
young chicks. It often occurs with white diarrhea and the 
double disease was for a long time considered as one. Poul- 
trymen designated the cases in which the lesions occurred in 
the lungs as "lungers." Investigation has shown that there 
are two diseases which may occur separately or together. 

Diagnosis. — This disease is characterized by a dumpish 
sleepy condition of the chick. The wings are pendulant. 
Breathing is rapid and sometimes accompanied by snoring 
sounds. A whitish diarrhea is present. A differential 
diagnosis between this and the coccidial white diarrhea is only 
possible by an examination of the dead birds. In asper- 



Other Diseases of Chickens 303 

gillosis, yellowish tubercles which closely resemble those of 
tuberculosis occur in the lungs and in the walls of the air 
sacs and often also in the intestines, mesentery, liver and 
other organs. In very acute cases the lungs are simply 
inflamed, death occurring before the formation of the 
tubercles. The mycelium and spores of the fungus may be 
found by microscopic examination of the tubercles and this 
fungus may be obtained by inoculating cultures from these 
tubercles. 

Etiology. — The disease is caused by the spores of an 
Aspergillus, usually A. fumigatus, Fig. 32. This is a very 
common fungus and the spores are widely distributed in 
nature. The spores are often found on the food or on the 
litter and are inhaled or taken in with the food. Incubator 
chickens are often infected from the incubators and brooders 
and hen hatched chickens from the straw or chaff in the nests. 
Sometimes the chicks get the disease from chick food not 
properly cared for. It is possible that this disease as well as 
the coccidial and bacillary white diarrhea is sometimes 
carried in the egg. The spores and mycelium are often found 
in the digestive tract of hens and it is not unlikely that they 
may work up the oviduct from the cloaca and infect an egg 
before it gets its shell. 

Treatme7it. — The treatment of diseased chicks is useless. 
When they are infected the spores develop on the mem- 
branes and new spores are formed which spread the infection 
throughout the ' respiratory system and also to the other 
organs. The only effective treatment is prevention. Keep- 
ing the flock under good hygienic conditions with clean food, 
litter and nesting material reduces the chance of infection 
and keeps the chicks in a vigorous condition in which they 
are able to resist the disease. The dead chicks should be 
burned or buried. 

Prognosis. — The disease is fatal so far as known. 



304 Diseases of Poultry 

Emphysema 

This name is applied to a disease of young chicks in which 
the skin puffs out in the sides of the neck near its juncture 
with the body. The size of the puff varies somewhat. 
In mild cases it is about the size of a hickory nut. Some- 
times there is one puff, sometimes several. 

According to Vale the trouble generally occurs in growing 
chicks which have been confined in close quarters. It is 
often associated with some lung trouble. It seems to be 
due to obstruction of the air passages and the rupture of 
some of the air sacs. The air thus escapes into the tissues 
beneath the skin. While not common this disease does 
occur in Maine. Some cases were reported to the Station 
while this work was in preparation. 

The treatment suggested by Vale is to puncture the skin 
with a needle and to give 2 grains nitrate of iron to each 
wine glassful of drinking water. 

Gajjes 

Gapes is a disease which attacks domestic poultry and 
many species of wild birds. In fowls it is more frequently 
observed in young chicks. It occurs also in adult fowls but 
rarely causes enough inconvenience to attract attention. 
The disease is due to the presence of minute parasitic worms 
in the air passages. 

Diagnosis. — The characteristic symptoms of this trouble 
are frequent gaping, sneezing, coughing with discharge of 
mucus. The affected birds appear weak and dumpish with 
drooping wings. When badly affected the bird stands or 
sits with its eyes closed, wings drooped, mouth open and at 
frequent intervals gasps as if suffocating. 

The correctness of a diagnosis for gapes should be tested by 



Other Diseases of Chickens 



305 





3 



Fig. 65. — Trachea (windpipe) of a 
pheasant showing gape worms 
(Syngamus trachealis) attached to 
the mucous membrane. (After 
Megnin.) 



Fig. 66. — a pair 
of Syngamus 
trachealis, at- 

- tached. (After 
Megnin.) 



determining whether or not the worms are present in the 
trachea. When chicks are dying from a disease supposed to 
be gapes the trachea of a dead bird may be examined. If the 



306 Diseases of Poultry 

trouble is gapes the worms will be found attached in pairs to 
the mucous membrane of the trachea. 

The two sexes are joined together in such a way that a pair 
looks like a double headed worm. The female is about ^ 
inch long and the male about ^ inch. The worms are 
pale in color when empty but when they have been feeding 
they are red with the blood of the chick. The presence of the 
worms in the trachea of a living chick may be demonstrated 
by passing a gape worm extractor (a loop of horse hair or 
fine wire or a feather with the vane removed except at the 
tip) carefully down the trachea for some distance turning it 
around to loosen the worms and drawing it out. If the 
worms are present some will be removed with the ex- 
tractor. 

The presence of the worms causes an irritation and inflam- 
mation of the membrane and stimulates the secretion of 
mucus. Some of the accumulation of worms and mucus is 
expelled by coughing. Sometimes part of it is swallowed 
and expelled with the feces. The loosened material may be 
drawn into the deeper air passages during inspiration. 
Death may occur from suffocation due to the obstruction of 
the air passages with worms and mucus, or weak individuals 
may die from loss of blood. 

Etiology. — The only cause of the disease is the nematode 
or thread worm Syngamus trachealis Siebold, called the gape 
worm, red worm, or forked worm (see Figs. 65 to 67). 
These parasites obtain their nourishment by sucking the 
blood from the mucous membrane of the trachea. They are 
attached in pairs to the membrane by their sucker-like 
mouths. Besides bringing about a considerable loss of blood 
the worms cause irritation and inflammation of the membrane 
and a copious secretion of mucus. The two sexes are so 
closely attached to each other that they cannot be separated 
with tearing. The body of an adult female is swollen with 



Othrr Dificrifirs of Chickens 



307 




Fig. 67. — A pair of Syngarmis trachealis. A, male. 
B, female. (After Megnin.) 



308 Diseases of Poultry 

thousands of eggs and occasionally contains some embryos. 
The eggs are not laid but escape when the body of the female 
is ruptured. This may take place with the decomposition 
of the worm or the body may be torn by the coughing of the 
bird. The eggs may develop and grow to adult worms within 
the trachea of the same bird. The worms, eggs and embryos 
are often coughed up. Sometimes they are swallowed and 
then some of the eggs and embryos may be passed with the 
feces. The worms coughed up are eagerly eaten by the 
same or other birds and the ova and embryos are often taken 
with contaminated food and drink. Developing embryos 
have been found in earth worms living in infected poultry 
yards, and these will cause gapes if fed to chicks. 

The eggs and embryos need only warmth and moisture to 
develop. Eggs may develop in the digestive organs. It is 
not known how the embryos reach the trachea from the 
digestive organs. A large number of those eaten never reach 
the trachea but are either digested or voided with the feces. 
Salmon says : " Although there are some thousands of eggs 
in the adult worms, 10 to 15 worms have been fed to a single 
chicken, and, as a result, not over 4 or 5 embryos would 
reach and develop in the trachea." According to Theobald, 
Ehler found copulated worms where several of the females 
were full of eggs 10 days after feeding ova to healthy chicks. 
Wet clay soils are especially favorable to the gape worms, 
and they thrive best in warm, wet weather. 

Treatment. — In eradicating the disease it is important to 
isolate all afifected birds so that the worms and ova coughed 
up or voided with the excrement may not be eaten by the 
other chicks or contaminate the food, drink, and the ground 
of the runs. Burn the bodies or at least the heads and necks 
of all dead birds. The feed troughs and water dishes should 
be scalded and the houses and coops disinfected. Use 
potassium permanganate in the drinking water. If possible 



Other Diseases of Chic hens 309 

provide fresh runs on which there has been no poultry for 
several years. 

The following methods have been recommended for dis- 
infecting the ground. It is doubtful if these are economically 
advisable. 

Treating the ground with air slaked lime and spading. 

Sprinkling with one of the following solutions : 

1 per cent or 2 per cent sulphuric acid. 

2 ounces of copperas dissolved in a pail of water. 

^ ounce of crystals of potassium permanganate to a bar- 
rel of water. 

The lime or acid treatments are most often recommended. 
The infected birds should be kept in houses easily cleaned 
and disinfected and this should be done frequently to prevent 
reinfection of the recovering birds. Theobald advises an 
addition of 3 drams of salicylate of soda to each quart of 
drinking water to destroy eggs and embryos that may con- 
taminate it. 

The individual surgical method may be profitably practiced 
in some cases. It seems to be the only sure method yet ad- 
vised of ridding an infested bird of the parasites. Wright ^ 
gives the following description of the method : 

"The old-fashioned cure was to strip a small quill- 
feather, all but a small tuft at the point, and (moistening it 
in turpentine or not) introduce it into the trachea, turn it 
round, and withdraw it with the worms. This is effectual, 
but requires care to prevent lacerating the windpipe or 
causing suffocation. In this way 30 worms have been suc- 
cessfully extracted from one chicken. A very much better 
method is to take two straight hairs from a horse's tail, laid 
together, tie a knot on the end of the pair, and cut off the 
ends close to the knot. This is passed straight (i.e., without 
twisting) down the windpipe as far as it will go without 

1 Wright, L., "The New Book of Poultry." London, 1905. 



310 Diseases of Poultry 

bending, then twisted between the finger and thumb and 
drawn out. A trial or two may miss, but usually 5 or 6 
attempts will bring up 4 or 5 worms, and the hairs inserted 
in this way, without twisting, do not seem to hurt the chicks, 
and are used with the greatest facility'. The bringing up of 
even from 4 to 10 worms, and the failure of more to come 
after a blank trial or two, may usually be reckoned as a 
cure." 

Wire gape worm extractors may be bought from dealers in 
poultry supplies, or one can make one for himself by taking 
No. 30 wire, forming a loop at one end just big enough to go 
easily down the trachea, and then twisting together the ends 
of the wire to form a long handle. Worms removed should 
be burned. 

It is reported {Jour. Bd. of A(/ric., London, Vol. 13, p. 368, 
1906) that gapes may be successfully treated by the fumes of 
carbolic acid. The method given is to place the chicks in a 
basket over a pail containing carbolic acid. A hot brick is 
placed in the pail for the purpose of volatilizing the acid. 

Prognosis. — This disease is often fatal in young chicks 
from one to four weeks old, especially in small, weak birds. 
In young chicks and in most adult fowls it often causes little 
inconvenience. These fowls, however, are constant sources 
of infection. The removal of the worms from the trachea 
if skillfully done so that the delicate membrane is not injured 
usually effects a cure but this individual treatment requires 
considerable time and the value of the chicks must determine 
whether or not it is economically profitable. 

Crooked Breast Bone 

The normal breast bone of a fowl is shaped like a boat with 
a deep keel. This keel is a thin plate of bone which furnishes 
a place for the attachment of the large flying muscles. In a 



Other Diseases of Chickens 311 

fully mature bird the breast bone is completely ossified but 
at hatching it is almost entirely cartilaginous. 

Normally the keel of the bone is straight and perpendicular 
to the basal portion of the bone. In many individuals, 
however, it is bent to one side or first to one side and then 
the other forming an S-shaped curve. Also it may be in- 
clined at the base at an abnormal angle. 

Poultr;>Tiien usually attribute these abnormalities to the 
fact that the birds go to roost too young. They believe that 
they are caused by the pressure of the hard roost on the soft 
bone. About fifty years ago Rottiger ^ called attention to 
the fact that crooked breast bones occur in chicks showing 
retarded growth before they have ever roosted and also in 
wild birds kept in captivity and prevented from early roost- 
ing. He also found these malformations associated with 
diseased conditions, especially catarrh. He believed that 
they were due not to external pressure but to a lack of bone 
forming elements in the diet or to a derangement of the 
digestive apparatus which prevented the proper assimilation 
of these elements. 

Our own experience is in accord with this view. Crooked 
breast bones often occur in cases of malnutrition or disease 
without reference to whether the birds have or have not 
roosted. In utility stock the crooking of the bone in itself 
may not be of great importance, though it lowers the sale 
value of a bird greatly. Some good layers have crooked 
breast bones. However, when large numbers having this 
malformation occur in the flock there is something wrong 
with the feeding or care of the chicks and such mistakes 
should be looked into and corrected. 

1 Rottiger, The Poultry World, Vol. 5, p. 298. (Translated 
from Ztschr. f. Gegliigel u. Singvogelzucht by W. G. Todd), 1876. 



CHAPTER XX 
Tumors 

New tissue growths or neoplasms (tumors) are by no 
means uncommon in domestic fowls. It has been the routine 
practice at the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station for 
several years to autopsy all birds that are killed for material 
or data and all birds that die from natural causes. The 
archives of the laboratory now contain about nine hundred 
autopsy records sufficiently complete to determine whether 
or not the birds had tumors and in what organs the tumors 
were located. These records show that 8.98 per cent of all 
the birds autopsied had tumors. That is, there were about 
90 cases of tumors per thousand birds. The genital organs, 
at least in the females/ were most often affected. In fact 
37 per cent of all the tumors found were in the ovary and 
19 per cent in the oviduct. Twenty-two per cent were found 
in the peritoneum (some of these were attached to the walls 
of the abdominal cavity and some were in the mesenteries). 
Tumors have also been found in the intestine walls, kidney, 
gizzard, liver, spleen, pancreas, heart and breast bone. 

Some of these tumors occurred in fowls killed for dissection 
or data and in apparently normal health. The tumors were 
the probable cause of death in less than half the cases of 
birds with tumors which died from natural causes. 

The tumor was usually confined to one organ, but there 

1 Very few males were autopsied. One of the three tumors found 
in males was located in one of the testes. 

312 



Tniiiors 313 

were fifteen cases in which tumors of similar nature occurred 
in two or more organs. In these cases the tumor had prob- 
ably undergone metastasis. 

The age of the bird is also related to frequency of the 
occurrence of tumors. Tumors being much more frequent 
in old than in young birds. Only 7.37 per cent of the birds 
under two and one-fourth years of age had tumors, while 
19.17 per cent of those older than this were affected. 

A further proof of the common occurrence of new tissue 
growths in fowls is the fact that in the course of ten months 
Rous, Murphy, and Tytler ^ obtained without difficulty 
about thirty spontaneous tumors in living fowls. 

Fowl tumors are apparently in every way analogous to 
tumors in human beings. They are masses of new tissue 
(neoplasms) which persist and grow independently of the 
surrounding structures. These growths are of no physiolog- 
ical use to the host but they are often harmless. Tumors 
may be classified as malignanf or benign. Benign tumors do 
not penetrate into the surrounding tissues but push them 
aside. They are usually encapsuled. On the other hand 
there are a number of tumors which are malignant and tend 
to infiltrate the tissues. ]\Iany of these produce growth in 
adjacent organs and even in distantly removed parts of the 
laody. Usually they affect the general health and when 
removed tend to recur. 

On examining four thousand hens brought to a hotel, 
Ehrenreich ^ found seven malignant tumors. All of these 
were found in one thousand hens more than one year old. 

1 Rous, P., Murphy, J. B., and Tytler, W. H., "A Filterable Agent 
the Cause of a Second Chicken Tumor, an Osteochondrosarcoma." 
Jour. Amer. Med. Assoc, Vol. 59, pp. 179.3-1799, 1912. 

- Ehrenreich, M., and Miehaelis, L., "Ueber Tumoren bei Hixh- 
nern." Zeitschr. f. Krebsforch, p. 586, 1906. 

Ehrenreich, M., "Weitere Mitteilungen iiber das Vorkommen 
malignes Tumoren bei Hiihnern." Med. Klin., BerUn, III, 614, 1907. 



314 Diseases of Poultry 

In the three thousand hens under one year old no maHgnant 
tumors were found. 

There are many theories regarding the origin of tumors. 
One which . has been quite generally accepted being that 
unused embryonic cells may remain collected in certain spots 
and that they may later be sufficiently stimidated to grow 
independently. In accord with this theory is the fact that 
the histological structure of a tumor resembles one or another 
of the general classes of body tissues, and in fact usually 
copies more or less closely the structure of the organ in which 
the primary tumor arises. However, when growths arise 
secondarily in other organs, that is, when the tumor has 
undergone metastasis, the secondary tumors are similar 
in structure to the primary tumor. Further Rous and his 
colleagues ^ have found several distinct chicken tumors 
which may be produced in healthy fowls by the injection of a 
cell free filtered extract of the tumor. In the case of each of 
these tumors the neoplasm produced in the inoculated fowl 
always resembles the tumor from which the extract was made. 
That is, the type of tumor is determined by the individuality 
of the causal agent and not alone by the potentialities of the 
stimulated cells. That is, the cells are not simply stimulated 
to grow, but they are stimulated to grow in a specific 
way. 

According to the general type of body tissue they resemble, 
tumors may be classified as follows : 

1 Rous, P., "A Transmissible Avian Neoplasm (Sarcoma of the 
common fowl)." Jour, of Exper. Med., Vol. XII, pp. 696-705. 

Rous, P., Murphy, J. B., and Tytler, H. W., loc. cit. 

Rous, P., and Lange, Linda B.," The Characters of a Third Trans- 
plantable Chicken Tumor Due to a Filterable Cause. A Sarcoma 
of Intracanalicular Pattern." Jour. Exper. Med., Vol. XVIII, pp. 
651-664, 1913. 

Rous, P., and Murphy, J. B., "On the Causation by Filterable 
Agents of Three Distinct Chicken Tumors." Jour. Exper. Med. ,Yol. 
XIX, pp. 52-68, 1914. 



l\i)n.ors 315 

I. Connective tissue type. 

II. Epithelial tissue type. 

III. Muscle tissue type. 

IV. Nervous tissue type. 

Each of these groups may be subdivided according to the 
more specific resemblance of the histology of the tumors to a 
particular kind of body tissue. At least six different types 
of the first group have been described in the domestic fowl. 

I. Tumors of the connective tissue type. 

1. Sarcoma (made up of embryonic connective tissue 
composed of closely packed cells embedded in a fibrillar or 
homogeneous substance) . 

2. Myxoma (mucous tissue, a soft translucent growth, made 
up of variously shaped cells of connective tissue and capillary 
blood vessels incased in a jelly-like matrix. 

3. Fibroma (composed mainly of fibrous or fully developed 
connective tissue). The tumors of this group are benign. 

4. Chondroma (a cartilaginous growth). 

5. Osteoma (bony tissue usually but not always develop- 
ing on bone). 

6. Lymphoma (made up of lymphoid tissue). 
According to Tyzzer and Ordway ^ tumors of the sixth 

group (lymphomata) occur more frequently than any other 
type. They suggest that this is probably due to two facts. 
(1) This type of tumor apparently develops in younger birds 
than other types, and (2) birds kept for egg production are 
usually killed at the end of their first year. They have 
described in detail seven different tumors of this group. In 
summing up their results they say : " In some cases lymph- 
oma occurs as a local primary growth either with or without 
metastasis. In other cases the tumor tissue is so uniformly 
disseminated throughout certain organs that it is impossible 

^Tyzzer, E. E., and Ordwav, T. "Tumors in the Common 
Fowl." Jour. Med. Research, Vol. 21, pp. 459-477, 1909. 



316 



Diseases of Poultry 



to determine the point of origin. Certain lymphomata are 
more or less alveolar in structure ; others grow diffusely 
through the tissues. The tumor may be confined to the 
fixed tissues so that it is essentially extravascular, or the 
tumor cells may also occur in the circulatory blood constitut- 
ing a lymphatic leukemia." 

Probably the second most frequent type of connective 



^1^^ 




0^ n^-^^W I 









Fig. 68. 



Sarcoma Chicken Tumor No. I, Second Generation. (After 
Rous.) 



tissue tumor is sarcoma. This may occur as simple sarcoma 
or it may occur in combination with one or more of the other 
types. That is, it is a generalized and simple tissue which 
may represent the complete adult stage of a tumor, as Rous 
Chicken Tumor No. I, and Chicken Tumor No. XVIII. 
However, since it is a simple generalized tissue, it may also 
represent an early stage in the development of one of the 
other forms of connective tissue tumors. In these cases it 
remains as a matrix in which the further developed tissues 




Fig. 69. — Chifkeu tumor XVIII in the gizzard of 
the original fowl. Three metastases are visible in 
the skeletal muscles, namely one in the neck, another 
in the thoracic wall above the right lobe of the liver 
and the third on the inner surface of the pelvis. All 
are indicated by arrows. (After Rous and Lange.) 



318 



Diseases of Poultry 



are embedded. Tyzzer and Ordway ^ have described a 
myxosarcoma in which masses of mucus were embedded in a 




Fig. 70. — Large osteo-chondrosarcoma produced by intramuscular in- 
jection of 4 cc. of the Berkfeld filtrate of an extract of chicken tumor VII. 
The fowl was killed when comatose eighty-seven days after the injection. 
Its .emaciation should be noted. (After Rous and Murphy.) 

connective tissue matrix and Rous, Murphy, and Tytler ^ 
found a transmissible Osteo-chondrosarcoma. 



* Loc. cit. 



- Loc. cit. 



Tumors 



319 



When the filtered extracts of this tumor were injected into 
susceptible individuals a rapid growth of cartilage forming 
connective tissue elements took place. These growths soon 
became cartilaginous and finally bony. 

The connective tissue tumors (especially the sarcomas) 




Fig. 71. — The growth shown in the preceding photograph after it had 
been sawed open. Scattered amid the smooth whitish cartilage is much 
bone with red marrow. (After Rous and Murphy.) 



are of frequent occurrence in mammals, and a large number of 
the avian tumors which have been described belong to this 
group. These tumors are sometimes benign but are often 



320 Diseases uf Poultry 

very malignant and appear in many organs of the body and 
frequently cause emaciation and death. All three of the 
chicken tumors which Rous and his colleagues have found 
capable of transference to other individuals belong to this 
group. Tumors of this group are usually covered with a 
hard, tough, fibrous tissue. 

The next group of tumors are those of the epithelial type. 
As in the preceding group, these tumors are further classified 
according to the particular type of body tissue they resemble. 
Two types of these epithelial tumors have been described in 
the domestic fowl. 

1. Adenoma (tumors with a gland-like structure). 

2. Carcinoma (cancer — epithelial cells developing in 
epithelial tissue). 

Pickens ^ has described an adenoma of the bile ducts in the 
domestic fowl (Fig. 72). This tumor was evidently of a 
highly malignant type as it had been transferred from the 
liver to the proventriculus, gizzard, spleen, intestines and 
peritoneum. The growths were small lobulated masses, 
the larger ones contained small cysts (sacs filled with serous 
liquid). The abdominal cavity contained about a pint of 
this liquid. 

Pick ^ and Koch ^ have each described a carcinoma found 
in the mouth of a fowl and Ehrenreich ^ considered that five of 
the seven malignant tumors he studied were carcinomata. 
Three types of carcinoma have been described : squamous 
celled, alveolar and granular cancer. Tumors of this class 
are malignant. 

1 Pickens, E. M., "A Cysto-adenoma in a Fowl." Rept. of 
New York State Veterinary College, pp. 261-268, 1913-1914. 

2 Pick, L., " Zur Frage von Vorkommen des Carcinoms bei Vogeln : 
Grossen Plattenepithelkrebs des Mundhohlenbodens dei einem 
Hiihn." Berliner klin. Wochenschr., 29, 669, 1903. 

'Koch, M., "Gesehwiilste bei Tieren." Verhandl. der deutsch. 
GeselUch. f. Path., 136, 1904 •» Loc. cit. 



Tumors 321 

Tumors of the third group are formed of muscle-like tissue. 
In some mammalian tumors (rhabelomyoma) the muscle 
cells are striated. In others (leiomyoma) .they are un- 
striated. So far as we know no tumors of the first group 
have been described in fowls, but Tyzzer and Ordway ^ have 
described a tumor in the mesentery of a domestic fowl which 
was composed of typical smooth muscle fibers. 

At present we know of no description of tumors of the 
fourth or nervous tissue group in the domestic fowl. Such 
tumors, however, very likely exist. 

We have seen that there are many different kinds of new 
tissue growths or neoplasms in the domestic fowl. Some of 
these are benign and some malignant. We are entirely 
ignorant of the cause of these growths when they spontane- 
ously occur in fowls. Only three out of thirty different 
tumors tested by Rous, Murphy and Tytler ^ can be repro- 
duced in another individual. None of these tumors has been 
transmitted to healthy fowls kept with those which have 
developed it. The work of Rous and others has, however, 
shown that particular neoplasms have specific causative 
agents which in some cases can be separated from the neo- 
plasm. In the cases studied this was apparently a living 
virus, although if organisms are present they are ultramicro- 
scopic and able to pass through a Berkfeld filter impermeable 
to Bacillus fiuorescens liquefaciens. 

The work of Rous has shown that many birds possess a 
perfect natural immunity to these tumors and that in general 
young, vigorous birds are most susceptible. Funk ^ has shown 
that birds stunted by a deficient diet are less susceptible than 

1 Loc. cit. 

2 Loc. cit. 

^ Funk, Casimir., " Studies on Growth : The Influence of Diet 
on Growth, Normal and Malignant." Veterinary Journal, Vol. 21, 
N. S., pp. 126-132, 1914. (Reprinted from Lancet.) 

Y 



322 



Diseases of PonJfrj/ 



normally developed birds and that the growth of the tumor 
(Rous sarcoma) is slower in the underdeveloped birds. 

It is a well known fact in human pathology that physiolog- 
ical activity stimulates the growth of some tumors, while 
physiological decline stimulates others. This is undoubtedly 
true also of fowl tumors. 

Non-malignant tumors located on external parts may be 




Fig. 72. — Cysto-adenoma on the serosa of the intestine. (After Pickens.) 



removed or they may be left alone. They will not ordinarily 
affect the health of the bird. Even malignant tumors are 
apparently not contagious. 

The ultimate nature of the causative agents has not been 
determined. With our present knowledge it is impossible to 
explain either the spontaneous origin of these agents within 
an individual or to account for their transfer from one individ- 



Tumors 323 

ual to another under natural conditions. However, the 
above work on avian neoi)hism together with similar work 
on the smaller mammals gives us some ground to hope that 
the cause, methods of prevention and cure for tumor and 
cancer in animals and man may soon be discovered. 



CHAPTER XXI 

Poultry Surgery 

It is proposed to consider in this chapter only those 
common pathological conditions of poultry which demand 
surgical treatment for their cure. At the outstart it should 
be said that poultry bear and recover from surgical operations 
very well. The common practice of caponizing, usually 
done without any aseptic precaution whatever and with small 
losses from infection, is sufficient evidence of this. Probably 
no mammal would bear opening the abdominal cavity (which 
is done in every caponizing operation) with such entire and 
nearly uniform freedom from ill effects as attends this opera- 
tion with poultry. The reason why poultry make such 
excellent surgical subjects lies in their marked resistance to 
all pyogenic (pus producing) germs. 

The Treatment of Cuts, Tears and All Open Wounds 

Very severe wounds may be successfully treated by adher- 
ing to the following procedure : 

1. Thoroughly wash the hands in warm water, using 
plenty of soap, before handling the wounds at all. After 
the hands have been well scrubbed, rinse them thoroughly in 
a pan of 1 to 1000 bichloride of mercury solution (p. 54) and 
dry with a clean towel. 

2. Pull out the feathers in the region around the wound, 
and thoroughly cleanse it, using first warm water, and follow 
this with warm 1 to 1000 bichloride solution. A piece of clean 

324 



Poultry Surgery 325 

soft cloth may be used for this purpose, or absorbent cotton. 
Make sure that the wound is thoroughly clean. Do not be 
afraid of hurting the bird. A little pain at the start is pref- 
erable to a dead bird later. 

3. If necessary sew up the wound, using a good sized sew- 
ing needle and silk. Both needle and silk should be soaked 
in alcohol for 15 minutes before using. Small wounds need 
not be sewed. Large ones will heal much quicker and more 
certainly if they are sewed. If the wound involves the mus- 
cles as well as the skin sew it up in two layers ; one set of 
stitches including only the muscles, the other set only the skin. 

4. Paint the skin in the region about the wound, but not the 
wound itself with dilute tincture of iodine. 

5. Powder the wound well with iodoform. 

6. Smear a thick layer of the ointment already recom- 
mended (p. 55) over all. 

7. If the wound is very severe bandage it with a clean cloth. 
The above treatment is only necessary in its entirety in 

very severe cases. Depending upon the gravity of the con- 
dition the following items in the treatment may be omitted 
in the order named : 

7 may be omitted except in most serious cases. 

7 and 3 may be omitted in less severe cases. 

7, 3 and 4 may be omitted in still less severe cases. 

7, 3, 4, and 1 may be omitted in still less severe cases. 

In case of slight wounds which appear still to demand some 
treatment 6 and 2 or even 6 alone will suffice. 

Abscess 

Should an abscess appear lance it with a clean sharp knife, 
making sure to cut to the bottom. Squeeze out the pus and 
core if there is one, and then proceed to heal it by following 
the treatment above outlined for wounds in general. 



326 Diseases of Poultry 

Bumhlefoot 

This is an abscess of the foot which may result from a 
variety of causes, e.g., too high roosts, too narrow roosts, 
undiscovered wounds caused by stepping on nails, splinters 
of glass, etc. It is usually not discovered initil the bird 
becomes lame. 

The best treatment to follow is first to tie a cord tightly 
about the leg above the foot to control the flow of blood; 
then with a clean, narrow bladed, sharp knife open up the 
abscess thoroughly. Go clear to the bottom and dig out 
the core. Then follow in detail, omitting nothing except 3, the 
treatment given above for wounds. Two days after the 
first treatment take off the bandages and repeat the treat- 
ment, going through in order steps, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, and 7. In 
some cases a third treatment after a lapse of 2 or 3 days may 
be necessary, but usually not if the first treatment is thorough. 

Of course the bird under treatment should be isolated and 
kept in a small pen with soft litter on the floor. 

Broken Bones 

If a bird is sufficiently valuable to warrant the trouble it is 
possible to set fractures of the long bones of legs and wings, 
and get successful union. A splint should be made for the 
affected part and carefully and thoroughly bound into place. 
Healing is rapid, and it should be possible to remove the 
splints in three weeks from the time they are put on if not 
before. In our experience firm union has occurred in less 
time than this. 

Frozen Combs and Wattles 

In northern parts of the country frozen wattles and combs, 
especially in male birds, are very common occurrences. The 



Poultry Surgery 327 

trouble is more apt to be with the wattles than the comb, 
because the former dip into the drinking water and then 
freeze at times when if dry they would not do so. 

The following brief but adequate directions for treating 
frozen combs and wattles are taken from Farm Poultry, Vol. 
15, p. 41 : "First thaw the wattles or combs out by manipulat- 
ing with the fingers well smeared with vaseline. Keep the 
bird in a cool (not cold) place, and anoint the frozen parts 
with a mixture of vaseline, 5 tablespoonfuls ; glycerin, 
2 tablespoonfuls ; turpentine, one tablespoonful, once or 
twice a day. If he is not very badly frosted it probably will 
make no difference with his breeding a few months from now 
— provided he is not again injured the same way." 

AncBsthetizing Poultry 

The difficulty which we have found to be inherent in anaes- 
thetizing the domestic fowl may be stated briefly in this way : 
If an}^ anaesthetic is pushed to the point at which the bird is in 
satisfactory condition for operative procedure in about 9 
cases out of 10 the bird will die on the table from the effects 
of the anaesthesia before the operation, if extensive, can be 
completed. If, on the other hand, the anaesthetic is given less 
freely the bird does not lose its reflex excitability. Every 
time a cut is made or a nerve is pinched with the forceps the 
bird will struggle. Our experience in anaesthetizing birds, 
which has now covered a large number of individuals, leads 
us to believe that the only middle ground between these two 
extremes is afforded by those cases (unfortunately too few) 
in which the individual idiosyncrasy of the bird toward ether 
makes it take the anaesthetic well. 

While we have made no detailed physiologic study as to the 
fundamental reasons underlying this difficulty respecting 
anaesthesia which has been described, it seems reasonably 



328 Diseases of Poultry 

apparent what these reasons are. Connected with the 
respiratory organs proper of a bird are the relatively enor- 
mous air sacs. During anaesthesia the ether or chloroform 
vapor gets into these air sacs either by diffusion or directly 
as a result of respiratory movements. There is reason to 
believe that the vapor, once in the air sacs, stays there until 
it is absorbed by the tissues ; in other words, it appears to be 
the case that the great bulk of an inhaled anaesthetic in the 
case of birds must be eliminated from the body by way of the 
urinary organs rather than the respiratory organs. Assum- 
ing this to be the case there is no difficulty in seeing why 
forcing an anaesthetic in a bird leads to disastrous results. 
The relatively enormous area for absorption afforded by the 
air sacs insures that a correspondingly large amount of the 
anaesthetic will be taken up very quickly. This almost imme- 
diately affects the vagus center, with the consequent cardiac 
inhibition, respiratory failure and death. 

The exact method of procedure which we now follow in 
anaesthetizing birds is as follows : Immediately before be- 
ginning the administration of the anaesthetic a 1-200 grain 
atropin sulphate tablet is dissolved in 1 c.c. of warm normal 
saline solution. The salt solution with the dissolved atropin 
is then injected subcutaneously in the axilla. Ether is used 
as the anaesthetic. It is administered from a small improvised 
mask which admits of the condition of the comb being seen 
during the operation. Depending on how hard the ether is 
pushed, the bird is ready for operation in from 15 to 20 
minutes after the anaesthesia is begun. The dosage of 1-200 
grain atropin to a bird may seem large, but we have never 
been able to see the slightest bad effect from it, provided the 
administration of ether was begun immediately after the 
injection of the atropin.^ 

1 The foregoing account of anaesthesia is taken from a paper by 
two authors (Pearl and Surface) published in Jour. Amer. Med Assoc, 
Vol. 52, pp. 382-383, 1909. 



GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS 

Abdomen. — That portion of the body which contains the internal 

organs. Belly. 
Agglutination. — The massing together of bacteria or the red cor- 
puscles of the blood when subjected to certain substances. 
Air sac. — One of the membranous sacs filled with air in different 

parts of the body, especially in the abdominal region. They 

often extend into the cavities of the bones and connect with 

the lungs. 
Albumen portion of oviduct. — See p. 248. 
Amcebiasis. — ^ A diseased state produced by amcBbse. 
Ancemia. — -A condition in wliich the blood is deficient either in 

quaUty or quantity. It is marked by paleness and loss of 

energy. 
Anterior. — ■ Situated in front of or in the forward part of. 
Anus. — The external opening of the intestine. Vent. 
Apathetic. — Lacking in feehng or ambition. Indifferent. 
Arachnida. — A class of invertebrate animals including among other 

groups the spiders, scorpions and mites. 
Articular. — Pertaining to the joints. 

Astringent. — Causing contraction and arresting discharges. 
Atony. — • Lack of normal tone or strength. 
Atrophy. — A wasting or diminution of the size of a part. 
Auditory meatus. — The opening into the ear. 
Autopsy. — The post-mortem examination of a body. 
Avian. — Pertaining to birds. 

Axilla. — The region under the wing where the latter joins the body. 
Bile. — The substance secreted by the Uver. Gall. 
Bronchi. — The tubes which lead from the end of the windpipe 

(trachea) to the two lungs (cf. Fig. 26). 
Carcinoma. — A malignant tumor or cancer. 
Catheter. — A tubular surgical instrument for discharging fluids 

from a cavity of the body or for distending a passage. 
Cecum {^\. eeca). — A blind intestinal pouch of which there are 

two in the fowl. 
Cell. — The smallest element of an organized body that manifests 

329 



330 Glossary 

independent vital activities. A morphological or structural 
unit of an organism. 

Chronic. — Long continued but not acute. 

Cleavage. — The division of the cells of an embryo. 

Cloaca. — The enlarged portion of the alimentary canal just before 
the vent. The intestine, the ureters (tubes from the kidneys) 
and the oviduct open into the cloaca. 

Concrement. — A lump or mass formed by successive additions. 

Congestion. — Excessive or abnormal accumulation of blood in a 
part or organ. 

Conjunctiva. — The delicate membrane that lines the eyeUds and 
covers the eyeball in front. 

Contagious. — A disease which is communicable by direct contact. 

Copulation. — Sexual intercourse. With fowls "treading." 

Cornea. — The hard transparent structure forming the anterior part 
of the eyeball. 

Cranium. — The brain case. 

Creolin. — A thick black Uquid coal tar preparation. It has anti- 
septic properties. 

Cresol. — A coal tar product with antiseptic and germicidal proper- 
ties. 

Cyst. — A sac-hke growth which usually contains a liquid or a semi- 
soUd. 

Demulcent. — A soothing mucilaginous or oily medicine. 

Dermoid cyst. — A form of congenital cyst often containing skin- 
like structures. 

Diuretic. — A medicine that increases the activity of the kidneys. 

Dorsal. — Pertaining to the back. 

Ecchymoses (ek-kim-o-ses). — Discoloration of the skin caused by 
blood outside of the blood vessels as in a bruise. 

Emaciated. — • Very lean or wasted condition of the body. 

Enema. — A liquid injection in the rectum or cloaca. 

Enteritis. — Inflammation of the intestine. In human medicine 
confined chiefly to the small intestine. 

Epidemic. — A disease that is widely prevalent in a community or 
locaUty. 

Epidermis. — The outer or non-vascular layer of the skin. The 
cuticle. 

Epithelioma. — A cancer or malignant tumor consisting chiefly of 
cells derived from the skin or mucous membrane. 

Epithelium. — The covering or outer layer of the skin and mucous 
membranes. 

Epizootic. — Occurring as an epidemic disease among animals. 

Ergot. — A fungus which affects and finally replaces the seed of a 



Glossary 'S'M 

cereal grass. Used chiefly in connection with the ergot of rye, 
which is poisonous to poultry. P^rgot as a drug has the prop- 
erty of causing the mammalian uterus to contract. 

Etiology. — ■ The causation of any disease. 

Excrement. — Fecal matter ; matter cast out as waste from the 
body. 

Exudate. — A substance thrown out of the body or deposited in a 
tissue by a vital process. 

Feces. — The excrement or undigested residue of the food discharged 
from the intestines. Dung. Droppings. 

Flagellate ynicro-organism. — Any minute microscopic organism 
which swims through the water by means of the lashing of one 
or more hair-like structures (flagella). 

Follicle. — See p. 246. 

Gall bladder. — The reservoir for the bile or gall secreted by the 
liver. It is readily seen on the upper side of the liver. 

Gallus domesticus. — The scientific name for the domestic fowl. 

Gangre7ie. — See p. 271. Gangrene of oviduct. 

Gastritis. — Inflammation of the stomach. 

Hermaphrodite. — An organism which has both male and female re- 
productive organs. 

Hemorrhage. — Bleeding. A copious escape of blood from the 
vessels. 

Hepatic. — Pertaining to the liver. 

Hyperemia. — Excess of blood in any part of the body. 

Hypertrophy. — The morbid enlargement or overgrowth of an organ 
or part. 

Immunity. — Security against any particular disease. 

Infection. — The transmission of disease from one animal to another, 
usually through some intermediate agent. 

Impaction. — The condition of being firmly lodged or wedged. 

Incinerate. — ■ To burn to ashes. Cremate. 

Incision. — A cut. 

Infiltration. — The accumulation in a tissue of substances not nor- 
mally found in it. 

Inflammation. — A morbid condition characterized by pain, heat, 
redness, and swelling, and by hyperaemia and various exuda- 
tions. 

Inoculation. — The insertion of a virus into a wound or abrasion in 
the skin in order to communicate a disease. 

Isthmus. — See p. 248. 

Keratitis. — Inflammation of the cornea of the eye. 

Larva. — The first stage in development after leaving the egg. 
Used in connection with insects, worms, etc. 



332 Glossary 

Larynx. — A muscular and cartilaginous structure situated at the 
base of the tongue and connecting with the windpipe (trachea). 
It is the organ of voice. 

Lesion. — Any hurt, wound or local degeneration. 

Leucocytes. — White blood corpuscles. 

Lumen. — A transverse section of the clear space within a tube. 

Lymphatic. — Pertaining to or containing lymph which is a trans- 
parent slightly yellow liquid which fills the lymphatic vessels. 
It corresponds in some respects to the serum or Uquid portion 
of the blood. 

Mammal. — Any vertebrate animal which suckles its young. 

Melanosis. — Pertaining to an abnormal deposit of pigment. 

Mesentery. — The fold of peritoneum attached to the intestines. 

Metamorphosis. — In insects the change from larval to adult form 
as from caterpillar to butterfly. 

Micro-organism. — ■ Any minute (microscopic) animal or plant. 
Often used in referring to bacteria or germs. 

Mite. — A small arthropod somewhat related to spiders (cf. 
Fig. 40). 

Morphological. — - Pertaining to the forms and structures of or- 
ganized beings. 

Mucosa. — The mucous membrane. 

Mucous membrane. — ■ The lining of the internal cavities of the body. 

Mucus. — The viscid secretion of certain (mucous) glands. 

Mycelium. — The thread-Uke portion of a fungus (cf. Fig. 53). 

Nacreous. — Resembling mother-of-pearl. 

Necrosis. — Death of a tissue. 

Necrotic. — Pertaining to dead or decaying tissue. 

Nictitating membrane. — The third or lateral eyehd in birds and 
some related forms, springing from the inner or anterior border 
of the eye and capable of being drawn across the eyeball. 

Nucleus (pi. nuclei). — A spherical body within a cell. The nucleus 
is essential to the Life of the cell. 

(Esophagus. — ■ That portion of the aUmentary canal between the 
mouth (pharynx) and the crop. 

Oral. — Pertaining to the mouth. 

Ovary. — The female sexual organ in which the eggs develop. 

Oviduct. — ■ The tube through which the egg passes from the ovary 
to the cloaca. 

Ovum (pi. ova). — - The egg, particularly while in the ovary, 
(cf. Fig. 60). 

Panophthalmia. — • Inflammation of all the structures or tissue of 
the eye. 

Papilla. — A small nipple shaped elevation. 



Glossary 333 

Paralysis. — A loss of motion or sensation in a living part or mem- 
ber. 

Pathology. — That branch of medicine which treats especially of the 
tissue changes caused by disease. 

Pectoral. — Pertaining to the breast or chest. 

Pelvis. — The girdle or ring of bone at the posterior extremity of 
the trunk, supporting the spinal column and resting upon the 
legs. 

Pericardium. — The membranous sac which contains the heart. 

Peristalsis. — The worm-like movements of the intestine and ovi- 
duct by which the contents of these tubes are propelled. 

Peritonitis. — Inflammation of the peritoneum or the membrane 
lining the abdominal cavity. 

Pharynx. — That portion of the alimentary canal between the mouth 
and the oesophagus. It also communicates with the larynx 
and nasal passages at its upper end. 

Pleural. — Pertaining to the serous membrane which covers the 
lungs. 

Posterior. — Situated behind or towards the rear. 

Post-mortem. — Latin for after death. See autopsy. 

Prognosis. — The prospect as to recovery from a disease or a forecast 
as to the probable result of an attack of a disease. 

Protoplasm. — A viscid granular material which forms the essential 
constituent of the living cell. Living substance. 

Protozoa. — A class of unicellular animal micro-organisms. 

Proventriculus. — That portion of a bird's alimentary canal lying be- 
tween the crop and the gizzard. Often called the stomach. 

Punctiform hemorrhages. — Presenting the appearance as if punc- 
tured by a large number of fine prickle or needle holes from 
which the blood oozes. 

Purgative. — Causing evacuations of the bowels. 

Pycemia. — Blood poison due to microbic origin. 

Sarcoma. — A kind of tumor or cancer not always of a malignant 
nature. 

Scabies. — A contagious skin disease caused by a mite. 

Sclerotic. — Pertaining to the hard white fibrous membrane which 
with cornea forms the outermost coats of the eyeball. 

Serum. — The clear liquid which separates from the clot and the 
corpuscles in the clotting of blood. 

Spleen. — An oval shaped organ normally about one-half inch in 
diameter and of a dark red color. It Ues immediately above 
the liver and between that and the proventriculus. 

Spirochete. — A protozoon parasite belonging to the genus Spiro- 
choeta. 



334 Glossary 

Spore. — The reproductive cell of many protozoa and of many 
lower plants. It is usually inclosed in tough membranes and 
is difficult to kill. 

Stigma. — See p. 248. 

Subcutaneous. — Beneath the skin. 

Sub-mucosa. — ■ The layer of tissue situated beneath the mucous 
membrane. 

Syncope (sin-ko-pe). — Fainting. Failure of the heart's action. 

Trachea. — • The wind-pipe. 

Traumatic. — ■ Caused by an injury. 

Therapeutic. — • Pertaining to the art and science of healing. 

Thoracic. — Pertaining to the chest. 

Urate. — A salt of uric acid. A product of the secretion of the kid- 
neys. The white part of a fowl's droppings. 

Ureters. — The tubes leading from the kidneys to the cloaca. 

Uterus. — See p. 248. 

Vagina. — That portion of the oviduct between the shell gland and 
the cloaca. 

Ventral. — Pertaining to, or situated toward, the belly. 

Virulent. — Extremely poisonous or dangerous. 

Virus. — Any animal poison, especially one produced by and ca- 
pable of transmitting a disease. 

Viscera. — The internal organs of the body. 



INDEX 



Abdomen, baggy, 80; liquid in, 80; ticus, 103; fluorescens liquefaciens, 



swollen, 79. 
Abdominal dropsy, 80. 
Abnormal eggs, 272. 
Abortion of eggs, 256. 
Abscess, 325. 
Acarina, 213. 
Achorion schotileinii, 234. 
Aconite root, 55. 
Adenoma, 320, 322. 
Agglutination test for tuberculosis, 

127 ; for white diarrhea, 297. 
Air, 19. 

Air-sac mite, 180, 227. 
Air sacs, 147. 
Ajowan oil, 169. 

Alimentary tract, diseases of, 57. 
Amoeba meleagridis, 95. 
Ansemia, 120. 

Anaesthetizing poultry, 327. 
Anatomy, of the fowl, 41 ; of repro- 
ductive organs, 245 ; of respiratory 

organs, 147. 
Apoplectiform septicaemia, 189. 
Apoplexy, 194. 
Apothecaries' weights and measures, 

56. 
Argas persicus, 192, 228. 
Arsenic as poison, 82. 
Articular gout, 200. 
Ascaris inflexa, 144. 
Ascites, 80. 
Aspergillosis, 101, 173; in chicks, 

302. 
Aspergillus species, 175 ; fumigatus, 

176, 285, 303. 
Atoxyl, 193. 

Atrophy of liver, 93 ; ovary, 251. 
Autopsy, 46. 

Bacillary white diarrhea, 287. 
Bacillus avisepticus, 103; bipolaris sep- 

33 



321; pullorum, 112, 285, 287, 
291,295; suisepticus, 104; tuber- 
culosis, 116; typhi gallinarum 
alcalifaciens, 112; typhosis, 111. 

Bacterium satiguinarium, 11. 

Baldness, 233. 

Balfour, 191. 

Bang, B., 131. 

Bang, Oluf, 118. 

Banks, 206, 207. 

"Bed-bug" of poultry, 230. 

Beeck, 82. 

Beri-beri, 197. 

Berke, 146. 

von Betegh, 156, 160. 

Bichloride of mercury, 54, 324. 

Blackhead, 94. 

Blood, diseases of, 185. 

Blood vessels, rupture of, 184. 

Bloody diarrhea, 68, 83, 91, 138. 

Bloody spots in eggs, 278. 

Body mange, 226. 

Bollinger, 183. 

Bones, broken, 326. 

Boracic acid, 152. 

Bordet et Fally, 160. 

Borrel, 160. 

Bradshaw, 52, 142. 

Brain, congestion of, 195 ; hemor- 
rhage of, 194 ; post-mortem ap- 
pearance of, 194. 

Breaking of egg in oviduct, 271. 

Breast bone, crooked, 310. 

Breeding for health and vigor, 3. 

Broken bones, 326. 

Bronchi, 147. 

Bronchitis, 153. 

Brown, 27. 

Bruet, 240. 

Bumblefoot, 326. 

Burckhardt, 186. 



336 



Index 



Calomel, 52. 

Cancers, 101. 

Canker, 164, 166, 172. 

Carbolic acid for cholera, 109 ; for 

catarrh, 152. 
Carcinoma, 320. 
Carcinomatosis, 101. 
Carnwath, 156. 
Cary, 155, 240, 243. 
Castor oil, 53, 
Catarrh, simple, 151 ; severe, 153 ; 

contagious, 156. 
Catechu, 52. 
Cayenne, 52. 
Ceca, post-mortem appearance of, 

97, 98, 294. 
Cephalogonimus pellucidus, 145. 
Cercomoniasis, 100. 
Cerebral hyperaemia, 195. 
Chelosperura harnulosa, 143. 
Chicken pox, 155, 237. 
Chickens, diseases of, 301. 
Chilomastix gallinarum, 146. 
Cholera, 103, 188. 

Circulatory system, diseases of, 182. 
Cleanliness, 14. 
Cloacitis, 280. 
Coccidia, 96. 
Coccidiosis, 71, 285. 
Coccidiuni tenellum, 285 ; cuniculi, 

285 ; life history of, 73. 
Cock eggs, 273. 

Cold, 151 ; treatment for, 152. 
Cole and Hadley, 75, 95, 96, 285. 
Comb, frozen, 326 ; white, 233, 236. 
Common measure, equivalents of, 56. 
Complement fixation, 127. 
Congestion of lungs, 177 ; brain, 195. 
Constipation, 69, 70. 
Constitutional vigor, breeding for, 3 ; 

definition, 6. 
Convulsions, 83, 196. 
Copper poisoning, 83. 
Corrosive sublimate, 54. 
Cotton seed oU, 54. 
Cremation, 31. 
Crematory, 31, 33. 
Creolin, 152. 
Cresol soap, 17. 
Cresol solution, 15 ; disinfectant, 17. 



Crooked breast bone, 310. 

Crop, impacted (crop bound), 58; 

inflammation of, 61 ; catarrh of, 

61 ; enlarged, 62 ; inflated, 63 ; 

paralyzed, 105. 
Crop, post-mortem appearance of, 

48, 294. 
Cropping poultry ranges, 27. 
Croup, 153. 
Crurea, 143. 

Curtain-front house, 11 ; interior, 13. 
Curtice, 102. 
Curtis, 78, 258, 274. 
Cuts, treatment of, 324. 
Cysticercoid, 136. 
Cytodites nudus, 180, 181. 

Dammann and Manegold, 190. 

Dampness, 10, 21. 

Dandelion, for liver trouble, 92. 

Davainea proglottina, 142. 

Davainea tetragona, 137. 

Dawson, 188. 

Dead birds, disposal of, 30. 

Decayed food, 85. 

Denny, 207. 

Depluming scabies, 225. 

Depperich, 113. 

Dermanyssus gallince, 214. 

Diagnosis of disease, 36. 

Diagnosis, table for differential, 37, 
50. 

Diarrhea, 64, 67, 70, 85, 98, 105, 120, 
154, 167, 174; bacillary, 287; 
bloody, 85, 91, 167 ; diagnosis of, 
292; watery, 89; white, 95, 112, 
283. 

Digestive organs, inflammation of, 
106. 

Diphtheria, avian, 155, 164;' vaccine 
for, 169 ; serum for, 169. 

Diphtheritic roup, 164, 166. 

Disease, prevention of, 3. 

Disinfection, 15 ; formalin, 16 ; form- 
aldehyde gas, 16 ; cresol, 17. 

Dispharagus spiralis, 143 ; nasutus. 
143. 

Dissection of bird, 46. 

Distemper, 154. 

Distoma ovatum, 145 ; species, 145. 



Index 



337 



Double-yolked eggs, 274. 

Dove cot bug, 230. 

Drepanidotcenia infundihuliformis, 

135. 
Drinking water, 24 ; antiseptic for, 

25. 
Droppings, green, 105 ; normal, 65. 
Dropsy, 80. 
von Durski, 257, 279. 
Dysentery, 67. 
Dyspepsia, 70. 

Edema of wattles, 244. 

Egg, bound, 266 ; breaking of, in 

oviduct, 271 ; laying, physiology 

of, 249. 
Eggs, abnormal, 272 ; abortion of, 

256 ; soft-shelled, 273 ; yolkless, 

273; "cock," 273; "witch," 273; 

double-yolked, 274 ; triple-yolked, 

274 ; inclusions in, 278 ; spots in 

278 ; smaU, 273. 
Ehrenreich, 313, 320. 
Ehrenreich and Michaelis, 313. 
EUerman and Bang, 186. 
Emaciation, 120. 
Emphysema, 304. 
Endocarditis, 183. 

Enlargement of heart, 184 ; liver, 90. 
Enteritis, 67. 

Enterohepatitis, infectious, 94. 
Epidermoptes bilobatus, 226 ; bifur- 

catus, 226. 
Epilepsy, 196. 

Epithelioma contagiosum, 155, 237. 
Epizootic, 154. 
Epsom salts, 53. 
Ergot of rye, 84. 
Eversion of oviduct, 263. 
Exercise, 29. 
External parasites, 30, 203 ; keeping 

poultry free, 203. 
Extractor, gape worm, 310. 
Eye worm, 232. 
Eyes, roup of, 157, 162. 

Fally, 156. 

Fantham, 75. 

Fatty degeneration of liver, 92. 

Favus, 226, 233. 



Feeding, hygienic, 21. 

Fleas, 230, 231. 

Flukes, 145. 

Follicle, 246 ; failure to rupture, 257. 

Formaldehyde gas, 16. 

Formalin, 16. 

Fowl cholera, 102, 188. 

Fowl plague, 112. 

Fowl typhoid, 102, 111, 186. 

Freese, 113. 

Freidberger and Frohner, 237, 241. 

Fresh air, 10, 19. 

Frozen comb and wattles, 326. 

Funk, 197. 

Gadow, 149. 

Gage, 288, 297. 

Gage and Opperman, 53, 139, 140, 141. 

GalJi-Valerio, 160. 

Game, Cornish Indian, 251. 

Gangrene of oviduct, 271. 

Gapes, 304. 

Gastritis, 63. 

Geese, 113. 

Gerhartz, 249. 

Gingylonema ingluvicola, 143. 

Gizzard, post-mortem appearance of, 
48. 

Gleet, vent, 280. 

Glossary, 329. 

Going light, 173. 

Goniodes dissimilis, 207. 

Gonococcus, 281. 

Gout, 101, 199; visceral, 200; articu- 
lar, 200. 

Greene, 85, 91, 269. 

Green droppings, 105. 

Green food, 24. 

Grippe, 154. 

di Gristiana, 201. 

Guerin, 160. 

Guinea-fowl, 113. 

Gurlt, 257. 

Hadley, 105, 109. 110. 
Hadley and Amison, 110. 
Hadley and Beach, 155, 239. 243. 
Hadley and Kirkpatrick, 286. 
Haiduk, 218, 219, 220, 221, 223. 
Hamilton, 253. 



338 



Index 



Haring and Kofoid, 156. 

Harrison, 240. 

Harrison and Streit, 155, 158, 160, 162. 

Harvest-bug, 227. 

Hauer, 19.3. 

Health, breeding for, 3. 

Health type, 4. 

Heart, diseases of, 182 ; enlargement 
of, 184 ; hypertrophy of, 184 ; rup- 
ture of, 184. 

Heart, post-mortem appearance of, 
47, 106, 113, 182, 183, 188, 200. 

Heart sac, dropsy of, 182. 

Heat prostrations, 195. 

Hebrant and Antoine, 200. 

Helodrilas parvus, 143. 

Hermaphroditism, 252. 

Hemorrhage, of brain, 194. 

Heterakis perspicillum, 143, 144. 

Higgins, 115. 

Hill, 182, 222. 

Himmelberger, 119, 127. 

Hirschfeld and Jacoby, 185. 

Horton, 300. 

Housing, poultry, 9. 

Hydrogen peroxide, 152. 

Hygiene, 8 ; essentials of, 35. 

Hyperemia, cerebral, 195. 

Hypertrophy of heart, 184 ; of liver, 
90 ; of yolk, 257. 

Illness, symptoms of, 37. 

Immunity against cholera, 109. 

Inclusions in eggs, 278. 

Indigestion, 70. 

Infectious enterohepatitis, 94. 

Infectious leukaemia. 111, 112, 185. 

Inflammation of mouth, 171 ; of ovi- 
duct, 262. 

Influenza, 154. 

Internal parasites, 133. 

Inoculation for cholera, 109 ; for 
roup, 169. 

Intestinal cocciciosis, 285. 

Intestinal worms, 133, 196. 

Intestines, congestion of, 86. 

Intestines, post-mortem appearance 
of, 48, 68, 86, 87, 106, 123, 124, 
294, 303. 

Isolation of sick birds, 34. 



Jaundice, 94. 
Jewett, 75. 
Johne's disease, 119. 
Jones, 288, 297. 

von Katz, 156, 160. 

Kaupp, 231, 300. 

Kidneys, congestion of, 86 ; diseases 
of, 199 ; enlarged, 199 ; inflamma- 
tion of, 106 ; post-mortem appear- 
ance of, 49, 86, 122, 199, 294. 

King and Hoffman, 113. 

Kingsley, 155. 

Kitt, 110. 

Knemidocoptes {Dermatoryctes) (Sar- 
coptes) mutans, 216, 218, 220, 221. 

Koch, 320. 

Koch and Rabinowitsch, 119, 122, 
128. 

KoUe and Hetsch, 191, 192, 

Lameness, 120, 121. 

Land, 26. 

Landois, 279. 

Landsterner, 113. 

Larynx, 147. 

Laurie, 228, 229. 

Lawry, 211. 

Lead as poison, 83. 

Leg weakness, 301. 

Leukaemia, 185; infectious. 111, 
112, 186. 

Levaditi and Manouclian, 191. 

Levaditi and Mcintosh, 193. 

Lewis, 5. 

Lewis and Clark, 281. 

Lice, 206 ; life history of, 207 ; mer- 
curial ointment for, 205 ; method 
of infestation, 208. 

Lice powder, how to make, 211. 

Life history of coccidium, 73. 

Light, 19. 

Limberneck, 86, 199, 202. 

Lipeurus heterographus, 207 ; varia- 
bilis, 207. 

Lisoff, 110. 

Litter, 20. 

Liver, congestion of, 86, 88, 93 ; 
diseases of, 87 ; nodules on, 87 ; 
spotted 87, 92, 95; hypertrophy, 



Index 



339 



90 ; enlarged, 90 ; fatty degenera- 
tion of, 92 ; atrophy of, 93 ; post- 
mortem appearance of, 47, 68, 86, 
87, 92, 93, 94, 95, 98, 106, 122, 125, 
187, 294, 303. 

Liver disease, 87 ; cause of, 88 ; 
treatment of, 89. 

Lounoy and Bruhl, 191. 

Lowenstein, 129. 

Lungs, congestion of, 177 ; post- 
mortem appearance of, 48, 122, 
125, 147, 294. 

Lye as poison, 81. 

Maine Experiment Station, 11, 17, 
24, 25, 27, 31, 164, 204, 211. 

Male reproductive organs, diseases 
of, 282. 

Mallophaga, 206. 

Mange, 226. 

Manson's eye worm, 232. 

Manteufel, 243. 

Marchoux, 114. 

Martin and Robertson, 146. 

Materia medica, 52. 

Measures, 56. 

Medical Record, 129. 

Medicines, 52. 

Megnin, 94, 217, 235, 305, 307. 

Menopon hiserialum, 206 ; pallidum, 
206, 208. 

Mercurial ointment, 205. 

Mercury, bichloride of, 54, 324. 

Mercury poisoning, 83, 205. 

Mesogoninius commutataris, 145. 

Metchnikoff, 300. 

Metric equivalents, 56. 

Meyer and Crocker, 76. 

Mitchell and Bloomer, 111. 

Mites, 114, 213; air-sac, 180, 227; 
connective tissue, 227 ; depluming, 
224; harvest-bug, 227; red, 214. 

Mohler and Buckley, 176. 

Monocercomonas galiinarum, 100. 

Moore, 102, 111, 137, 186, 188, 189. 

Moore and Ward, 115. 

Morse, 25, 131, 285, 286. 

Mouth, inflammation of, 171. 

Muller, R., 160. 

Miiller, J., 107. 



Murray, 227. 
Mycosis, 173. 
Myocarditis diphtheritica, 183. 

Nematode worms, 142. 

Nervous system, diseases of, 194. 

New flock building, 131. 

New Jersey Experiment Station, 5. 

Neumann, 145. 

Nitrate of soda as poison, 81. 

Nits, 208. 

Nodular taenia.sis, 137, 138. 

Notocotyle triserialis, 145. 

Obstruction of oviduct, 266 ; of vent, 
69. 

Ointment, for wounds, 55 ; mer- 
curial, 205. 

Operation for egg bound, 209 ; im- 
pacted crop, 60. 

Oppel, 150. 

Oregon Experiment Station, 300. 

Osborn, H., 214. 

Ostertag and Ackermann, 106. 

Ovary, 246; atrophy of, 251; dis- 
eases of, 251 ; gangrene of, 255 ; 
tumors on, 256. 

Ovary, post-mortem appearance of, 
48, 122. 

Overfeeding, 24. 

Oviduct, 248, 260 ; anatomy of, 258 ; 
diseases of, 258 ; inflanunation of, 
262 ; prolapse of, 263 ; obstruc- 
tion of, 266 ; rupture of, 270 ; 
gangrene of, 271 ; broken egg in, 
271. 

Ovule, 246. 

Oxysperura mansoni, 232. 

Paralysis, partial, 85. 

Parasites, external, 203 ; internal, 

133. 
Parrots, 119, 121. 
Pasteur, 104. 
Pearl and Curtis, 78, 250. 
Pearl and Surface, 328. 
Pearson, 196, 233. 
Pearson and Warren, 138, 195. 
Pericarditis, 182. 
Pericardium, inflammation of, 182. 



340 



Index 



Peritoneum, post-mortem appearance 
of, 49, 79. 

Peritonitis, 77. 

Permanganate, potassium, 25, 152 ; 
for roup, 163. 

Pernot, 115, 120. 

Pfeiler and Rehse, 112. 

Pharynx, 147. 

Pheasants, 113, 253, 254. 

Philips, 170. 

Phosphorus poisoning, 84, 113. 

Physiology, of reproductive organs, 
245 ; respiratory organs, 147. 

Pick, 320. 

Pickens, 320, 322. 

Pierce, 216. 

Pip, 171. 

Plague, fowl, 102, 112. 

Plymouth Rock, 251. 

Pneumomycosis, 302. 

Pneumonia, 178. 

Poisons, 81 ; ptomaine, 85 ; treat- 
ment for, 86. 

Poisonous plants, 85. 

Polish, White Crested Black, 251. 

Polyneuritis, 197. 

Post-mortem appearance of brain, 
194 ; ceca, 97, 98, 294 ; heart, 47, 
106, 113, 182, 183, 188, 200; in- 
testines, 48, 68, 86, 87, 106, 123, 
124, 294, 303 ; kidneys, 49, 86, 122, 
199, 294 ; liver, 47, 68, 86, 87, 92, 
93, 94, 95, 98, 106, 122, 125, 187, 
294, 303 ; lungs, 48, 122, 125, 147, 
174, 177, 178, 183, 188, 294, 303 ; 
ovary, 48, 122 ; spleen, 48, 68, 87, 
122, 125, 294. 

Post-mortem appearances, 47, 48 ; 
diagnostic value of, 49 ; table of, 
50. 

Post-mortem examination, 40 ; di- 
rections for making, 46. 

Potassium permanganate, 25, 152 ; 
for roup, 163. 

Poultry surgery, 324. 

Powder, lice, 211. 

Prevention of cholera, 107 ; of dis- 
ease, 3. 

Prolapse of oviduct, 263. 

Prowazek, 192. 



Ptomaine poisoning, 85. 
Ptychotes coptica, 169. 
Pulex gallinw, 230, 231. 

Rabies, 114. 

Range sanitation, 26. 

Ransom, 136, 143, 232. 

Rats, 156. 

Red mite, 214. 

Reidenbach, 169. 

Reproductive organs, 247 ; anatomy 
and physiology, 245 ; diseases of, 
245 ; diseases of male, 282. 

Respiratory system, anatomy and 
physiology, 147 ; diseases of, 147. 

Rettger and Harvey, 287. 

Rettger and Kirkpatrick, 288. 

Rettger and Stone burn, 291, 292, 
293, 294. 

Rettger, Kirkpatrick and Jones, 289, 
290, 291, 295, 297, 299. 

Rheumatism, 199, 201 ; in tubercu- 
losis, 121. 

Rhode Island Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station, 109, 110. 

Robinson, 90, 224, 236, 265, 266, 301. 

Roebuck, 157, 166. 

Rosenthal, 114. 

Rotation, crops and chickens, 27. 

Rottiger, 311. 

Round worms, 142. 

Roup, 155 ; nasal, 156 ; diphtheritic, 
164. 

Rous, 314, 316, 321. 

Rous and Lange, 314, 317. 

Rous and Murphy, 314, 318, 319. 

Rous, Murphy and Tytler, 313, 314, 
318, 321. 

Rupture, of blood vessels, 184 ; heart, 
184 ; oviduct, 270. 

Russ, 112. 

Saccharo?nyces albicans, 173. 

Salmon, 4, 77, 96, 102, 115, 129, 139, 
144, 154, 156, 182, 183, 188, 196, 
209, 226, 255, 265, 266, 280, 301. 

Salt, as poison, 81. 

Salts, Epsom, 53. 

Salvarsan (606), 193. 

Sanitation, 9. 



Index 



341 



Sarcomatosis, 101. 

Sarcoptes mutans, 240. 

Sarcoptes Icevis var. gallince, 224, 

225. 
Scabies, depluming, 224. 
Scaly leg, 216. 
Schiffmann, 114. 
Schmid, 156. 
Schalze, 150. 
Scott, 143. 
Seddon, 244. 

Serum for diphtheria, 169. 
Sickness, isolation, 34. 
Sigwart, 156, 169. 
Skeleton, 41. 
Skin, diseases of, 233. 
Sleepy disease, 189. 
Small eggs, 273. 
Smith, 95, 96, 286. 
Smith and Ten Broeck, 111, 112, 

291. 
Soft-shelled eggs, 273. 
Sore-head, 237, 239. 
Sour milk for white diarrhea, 299. 
Sparrows, 119. 
Spirochaeta gallinarum, 191. 
Spirochaeta marchouxi, 230. 
Spirochsetosis, 190. 
Spleen, post-mortem appearance of, 

48, 68, 87, 122, 125, 294. 
"Spotted liver," 100. 
Spots in eggs, 278. 
Staggering, 195. 
Stieda, 149. 

Stiles, 135, 136, 138, 142. 
Stock tonic, 71. 
Stomach, inflammation of, 63. 
Storrs Experiment Station, 288. 
Streit, 160. 
Streptococcus capsulatus gallinarum, 

190. 
Strychnine, 84. 
Suffram, 81. 
Sunhght, 10, 19. 
Surface, 259. 
Surgery, poultry, 324. 
Sweet, 156, 240. 
Symplectoptes cysticola, 227. 
Symptoms, table of external, 37. 
Syngamus trachealis, 305, 306, 307. 



Table of post-mortem appearances, 
50. 

Tables of symptoms, 37. 

Tablets, 54. 

Taeniasis, nodular, 137. 

Tainted ground, 27. 

Tape worms, 134 ; treatment, 139 ; 
prevention, 141. 

Tears, treatment of, 324. 

Tetranychus (Leptus) autumnalis, 221 . 

Theobald, 145, 181, 225, 227, 228, 
232. 

Thompson, D. S., 7. 

Thompson, J. A., 145. 

Thrombosis, 185. 

Thrush, 173. 

Ticks, 114, 192, 228. 

Tonic, 71. 

Trachea, 147. 

Trematodes, 145. 

Trichomastix gallinarum, 146. 

Trichomonas gallinarum, 146. 

Trichosoma strumosum, 143. 

Triple-yolked eggs, 274. 

Trypanosoma eberthi, 146. 

Tubercle, 122. 

Tuberculin, 126; reaction to, 127i 

Tuberculosis, 115, 137, 180; diagno- 
sis, 125 ; method of contagion, 128 ; 
treatment for, 129. 

Tumors, 101, 121, 312; ovarian, 256; 
kinds of, 315. 

Turkeys, blackhead in, 94, 113. 

Typhoid, fowl, 102, 111, 187. 

Tyzzer and Ordway, 315, 318, 321. 

Uhlenhuth and Gross, 193. 
Uhlenhuth and Manteufel, 156, 160. 
Ulcers, 121. 

United States Department of Agri- 
culture, 216. 
Urates, green, 105. 
Urates, yellow, 104. 

Vaccine for diphtheria, 169. 

Vale, 144, 236, 304. 

Van Es, 125. 

Van Es and Schalk, 119, 123, 125, 

126, 127, 130. 
Vedder and Williams, 197. 



342 



Index 



Vent gleet, 280. 

Vertigo, 195. 

Vigor, breeding for, 3. 

Viscera, normal, 43. 

Visceral gout, 200. 

Vomiting, 61. 

Von Linstor and Railliet, 145. 

Ward, 106, 108, 122, 124, 128, 240. 

Warthin, 185. 

Wasting of liver, 93. 

Water, drinking, 24. 

Wattles, edema of, 244 ; frozen, 326. 

Weights, 56. 

White comb, 233, 236. 

White diarrhea, 95, 112, 283; bacil- 

lary, 287 ; diagnosis of, 292. 
Wilcox and McClelland, 232. 



Windpipe, 147. 

Witch eggs, 273. 

Woods, 293. 

Worms, 133 ; eye, 232 ; flukes, 145 ; 

gape, 305 ; round, 142 ; tape, 134 ; 

trematode, 145. 
Wounds, treatment of, 324. 
Wright, 1, 236, 256, 281, 309. 
Wry-neck, 202. 
Wyandottes, Silver-laced, 7. 

Yarrell, 253, 254. 
Yolk hypertrophy, 257, 
Yolkless eggs, 273. 

Zinc as poison, 83. 

Ziirn, 79, 82, 115, 137, 139. 183, 235, 
264, 266. 



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